1 System Development Project: a planned undertaking that has a beginning and an end, and which produces a predetermined result or product Information System development project: planned undertaking that produces a system Basic activities in development of any new system: –Analysis – to understand information needs –Design – define the system architecture (based on needs) –Implementation – the actual construction of the system courses.htm

2 System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) The systems development life cycle (SDLC) is a general term used to describe the method and process of developing a new information system Without the structure and organization provided by SDLC approach projects are at risk for missed deadline, low quality etc. SDLC provides –Structure –Methods –Controls –Checklist Needed for successful development courses.htm

3 Phases in the SDLC Sets of related activities are organized into “phases”: (1)Project planning phase (2)Analysis phase (3)Design phase (4)Implementation phase (5)Support phase In “classical” life cycle these phases are sequential, but there are variations as we will see courses.htm

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5 The Planning Phase Define the problem (and its scope) Confirm project feasibility Produce the project schedule Staff the project Launch the project After defining the scope and conducting feasibility study the plan is reviewed and if it meets with approval, the project is launched courses.htm

6 The Analysis Phase Primary objective: to understand and document the information needs and processing requirements of the new system –Gather information (e.g. interview, read, observe etc.) –Define system requirements (reports, diagrams etc.) –Build prototypes for discovery of requirements –Prioritize requirements –Generate and evaluate alternative solutions –Review recommendations with management courses.htm

7 Design Phase Objective: to design the solution (not to implement it though) Activities –Design and integrate the network –Design the application network –Design the user interfaces –Design the system interfaces –Design and integrate the database –Prototype for design details –Design and integrate the system controls courses.htm

8 Implementation Phase Information system is built, tested and installed (actual programming of the information system) Activities –Construct software components –Verify and test –Develop prototypes for tuning –Convert data –Train and document –Install the system courses.htm

9 Support Phase Objective is to keep the information system running after its installation Activities –Provide support to end users Help desks Training programs –Maintain and enhance the computer system Simple program error correction Comprehensive enhancements upgrades courses.htm

10 Scheduling of Project Phases Traditional approach: “Waterfall method” – only when one phase is finished does the project team drop down (fall) to the next phase –Fairly rigid approach –Can’t easily go back to previous phases (each phase would get “signed off”) –Good for traditional type of projects, e.g. payroll system or system with clearly definable requirements –Not as good for many of the new types of interactive and highly complex applications courses.htm

11 Newer Approaches The waterfall approach is less used now The activities are still planning, analysis, design and implementation However, many activities are done now in an overlapping or concurrent manner Done for efficiency – when activities are not dependent on the outcome of others they can also be carried out (but dependency limits overlap) courses.htm

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13 The Project Team Like a “surgical team” – each member of the team performs a specialized task critical to the whole Project team varies over duration of the project (as does project leadership) –During planning team consists of only a few members (e.g. project manager and a couple of analysts) –During analysis phase the team adds systems analysts, business analysts –During design other experts may come in with technical expertise (e.g. database or network design) –During implementation, programmers and quality control people are added

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15 Project Management Project Manager – has primary responsibility for the functioning of the team Project Management – organizing and directing of other people to achieve a planned result within a predetermined schedule and budget Good manager: –Knows how to plan, execute the plan, anticipate problems and adjust for variances Client – person or group who funds the project Oversight committee – reviews and direct the project User – the person or group who will use the system

16 Tasks of a Project Manager Planning and Organization –Identify scope of the project –Develop a plan, with detailed task list and schedule Directing –Responsible for directing the execution of the project –Responsible for monitoring the project - make sure that milestones (key events in a project) are met –Overall control of the project Plan and organize project Define milestones and deliverables Monitor progress Allocate resources and determine roles Define methodologies Anticipate problems and manage staff

17 Project Initiation Projects may be initiated as part of the long-term strategic plan (top-down) –based on mission or objective statement come up with some competitive business strategy- usually involves IT) –E.G. Rocky Mountain Outfitters example – to be more competitive wants to improve customer support – so moves towards Internet based re-development of systems Projects may proceed bottom up –To fill some immediate need that comes up Projects may also be initiated due to some outside force –E.g. change in tax structure may affect billing system

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19 The Project Planning Phase 1.Defining the Problem Review the business needs and benefits (a brief paragraph) Identify the expected capabilities of the new system (define the scope of the project) May involve developing a context diagram to explain the scope of the project

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23 2. Confirming Project Feasibility –Economic feasibility – cost-benefit analysis –Organizational and cultural feasibility E.g. low level of computer literacy, fear of employment loss –Technological feasibility Proposed technological requirements and available expertise –Schedule feasibility How well can do in fixed time or deadline (e.g. Y2K projects) –Resource feasibility Availability of team, computer resources, support staff Economic Feasibility –The analysis to compare costs and benefits to see whether the investment in the development of the system will be more beneficial than than costly

24 Costs –Development costs : salaries and wages, equipment and installation, software and licenses, consulting fees and payments to third parties, training, facilities, utilities and tools, support staff, travel and miscellaneous –Sources of Ongoing Costs of Operations: connectivity, equipment maintenance, computer operations, programming support, amortization of equipment, training and ongoing assistance (help desk), supplies

25 Benefits –Tangible benefits - examples Reducing staff (due to automation) Maintaining constant staff Decreasing operating expenses Reducing error rates (due to automation) Ensuring quicker processing and turnabout Capturing lost discounts Reducing bad accounts or bad credit losses Reducing inventory or merchandise loss Collecting accounts receivable more quickly Capturing income lost due to “stock outs” Reducing the cost of goods with volume discounts Reducing paperwork costs

26 Benefits –Intangible benefits – examples Increased level of service (in ways that can’t measure) Increased customer satisfaction Survival The need to develop in-house expertise Note - also can have intangible costs for a project reduced employee moral lost productivity lost customer or sales

27 Conducting the feasibility study Each category of cost is estimated Salaries and wages are calculated based on staffing requirements Other costs such as equipment, software licenses, training are also estimated A summary of development costs and annual operating costs is created A summary of benefits is created Net present value (NPV) – present value of benefits and costs, is calculated for e.g. 5 year period Decision is made to proceed with project or not

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32 Some Terminology (see text – Appendix B) Net present value: The present value of dollar benefits and costs for an investment such as a new system –since $100 received one year in the future is worth only $94.34, using a discount rate of.06, the discount rate is used the calculation of Net present value (which equates future values to current values) Payback period, or breakeven point: The time period at which the dollar benefits offset the dollar costs Return on Investment (ROI): a measure of the percentage gain received from an investment such as a new system ROI=(estimated time period Benefits – estimated time period costs) / estimated time period costs Tangible benefits: Benefits that can be measured or estimated in terms of dollars and that accrue Intangible benefits: Benefits that accrue but that cannot be measured quantitatively or estimated accurately

33 Developing a Project Schedule 1.Identify individual tasks for each activity Top-down or bottom-up approach 2.Estimate the size of each task (time and resources) – optimistic, pessimistic and expected times 3.Determine the sequence for the tasks 4.Schedule the tasks Charting methods (Appendix C) –PERT/CPM (Project Evaluation and Review Technique/Critical Path Method) chart shows the relationships based on tasks or activities Defines tasks that can be done concurrently or not and critical path –Gantt chart shows calendar information for each task as a bar chart Shows schedules well but not dependencies as well

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36 PERT Chart Tasks represented by rectangles Tasks on parallel paths can be done concurrently Critical path – longest path of dependent tasks –No allowable slack time on this path –Other paths can have slack time (time that can slip without affecting the schedule)

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38 Gantt Chart Tasks represented by vertical bars Vertical tick marks are calendar days and weeks Shows calendar information in a way that is easy Bars may be colored or darkened to show completed tasks Vertical line indicates today’s date

39 Further Preparations Staffing the Project –Develop a resource plan –Identify and request technical staff –Identify and request specific user staff –Organize the project team into work groups –Conduct preliminary training and team-building Launching the Project –Oversight committee gives final go-ahead –Funds are released and project is announced

40 Review of Development of Feasibility Study (Cost-Benefit Analysis, Scheduling etc.) Checklist of questions for generating documentation for feasibility study (during project planning phase) 1.History of the project request (a)Who requested it? (b)When did they request it? (c)What did they expect? (d)Who were the client (i.e. person or group who funds the project) representatives?

41 2. Objectives and Scope (a)What is this project to accomplish? (b)What is involved? -determine software requirements -Determine hardware requirements -What kind of performance criteria is expected 3. Current Situation (a)What areas are you addressing? (b)Why are you addressing these areas? (c)What are the relevant procedures? (d)Who are the relevant people? (e)Problems with the current approach (f)What needs to be changed ?

42 4. Solution Recommended (a)How will the thing work? (just a rough overview at this stage to show its feasible) (b)Who will do what? (c)How will they do it? (d)What will no longer be necessary? 5. Equipment Used (a)What equipment is to be used? (describe) (b)How much of it is already installed? (c)Where is the equipment installed? (d)For what purpose? (e)What else is needed? (f)Where is it needed?

43 6. Databases and Files Used (a)What databases or files will be used? (b)What databases will be created? (and what is involved?) (c)What size will they be? (d)What will they be available for? 7. Costs and benefits (a)List benefits -in business, “tangible” benefits are particularly sought (e.g. hard $ savings) -However, a project may result in “intangible” benefits Example of tangible benefits: “Annual benefits of $2.0 million identified from lower fuel costs” – this was caluculated out (b) List costs E.g. programming (69 $370/day) batch processing (1.6 hrs at $2450/hr) (c ) comparison of costs versus benefits – Net present value

44 8. Schedules 9. Next step Recommendation about whether to proceed to next phase (ie Analysis phase) or scrap the project NOTE – at this point the proposed project is reviewed and if it receives go-ahead we move from the Planning Phase to the Analysis Phase

45 Approaches to System Development System Development Methodology –Comprehensive guidelines to follow for completing every activity in the system development life cycle, including specific models, tools and techniques –May contain instructions about how to use models, tools and techniques –We will examine a number of different methodologies for system development

46 Models –Model: A representation of some important aspect of the real world –Models used in system development include representations of inputs, outputs, processes, data, objects, object interactions, locations, networks, and devices etc. –Most models are graphical – diagrams and charts –Models of system components Flow chart Data flow diagram (DFD) Entity-relationship diagram (ERD) Structure chart Use case diagram Class diagram Sequence diagram –Models to manage the development process PERT chart Gantt chart Organizational hierarchy chart

47 Tools –Tool: Supportive software that helps create models or other components required in the project –Examples of tools Project management application Drawing/graphics application Word processor/text editor Computer-aided system engineering (CASE) tools Integrated development environment (IDE) Database management application Reverse-engineering tool Code generator tool

48 Techniques –Technique: a collection of guidelines that help the analyst complete a system development activity or task –Examples of techniques Strategic planning techniques Project management techniques User interviewing techniques Data-modeling techniques Relational database design techniques Structured analysis technique Structured programming technique Software-testing techniques (e.g. usability testing) Object-oriented analysis and design techniques

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50 Two Approaches to System Development the basis of virtually all methodologies Approaches –The structured approach System development using structured programming, structured analysis, and structured design techniques –Object-oriented approach An approach to systems development that views an information system as a collection of interacting objects that work together to accomplish tasks

51 The Structured Approach The structured approach is made up of: 1. Structured programming 2. Structured design 3. Structured analysis Also known as SADT (Structured Analysis and Design Techniques) Before late 90’s you’d probably learn “structured programming” in your first programming course “structured analysis” evolved in the 1980’s (for stage prior to programming)

52 Structured Programming Structured program –A program or program module that has one beginning and one ending, and each step in the program execution consists of one of the following Sequence (of program statements) Decision (where one set of statements or another executes) Repetition (of a set of statements) –Related to concept of top-down programming Division of complex problems into a hierarchy of smaller, (more manageable) program modules Top program “calls” lower-level modules Lower level modules deal with lower-level detail Makes programs much easier to write and understand Module: collection of instructions to accomplish some logical function or task (“modular programming”) – e.g. Procedures/functions in a programming language

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55 Structured Design Structured design –A technique providing guidelines for deciding what the set of programs should be, what each program should accomplish, and how the programs should be organized into a hierarchy –Related to (similar principles) as structured programming, but here looking at a larger level of how program modules themselves are organized –Top-down approach again start with highest level functions – top-level and break down into lower level program modules (lower level details goes below) –Use of a structure chart helps A graphical model showing the hierarchy of program modules produced in a structured design

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57 Notes on structured design By breaking a complex problem down into sub- problems one can program very complex systems (e.g. space shuttle launch) –Can hand off modules to other teams (at other locations) –Specify what want to go as input to the module and what want the module to return –The other team takes care of the details of their module(s)

58 Structured Analysis Structured analysis – a techniques to help define –What the system needs to do (processing requirements) –What data the system needs to store and use (data requirements) –What inputs and outputs are needed –How the functions work together to accomplish tasks Key graphical model used – data flow diagram (DFD) –Shows inputs, processes, storage and outputs and how they function together –Based on activities (processes) and data that flow in and out of them

59 BOOK DATA HANDLE ORDER CUSTOMER DATA CUST. Square Example of a data flow diagram Source or destination of data Arrow Flow of data Rounded Rectangle Process which Transforms flows of data Open-ended rectangle Store of data Orders Invoices (with books) Credit status DFD symbols

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61 Another key graphical model – the Entity-relationship diagram (ER diagram) –Focuses on identifying types of “things” (entities) which the system needs to store information about (e.g. customers, items and details) –Specifies relationships between these things or entities –Used a lot for design of databases – you “carve up” your business application into entities you will store data about

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63 Weaknesses of the Structured Approach Techniques address some but not all of the activities of analysis and design Critics want a more comprehensive set of techniques Many thought data modelling using structure chart and ER diagram were more important than modelling processes (using dataflow diagrams) However, the structured approach overall still made processes rather than data the central focus Many felt a strategic planning technique needed to be included as well

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65 The Object-Oriented Approach Structured approach referred to in text as “traditional approaches” Newer approach is object-oriented –Really has swept through computer industry –Application in many areas Object-oriented programming (OOP) Object-oriented database management system (OODBMS) Object-oriented analysis (OOA) Object-oriented design (OOD)

66 Object-Oriented Approach Based on notion of “objects” – things in the computer system (and the world) which have behaviours and respond to “messages” Objects can be anything –A menu bar, or window on the screen –A car –A house –A number etc.! Can send a message to an object –E.g. to a window to draw itself on the computer screen –E.g. to a number to square itself! Can model very complex systems (e.g. a reactor)

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68 History of Object Orientation Object-oriented approach began with development of Simula in the 1960’s In 1970, Smalltalk was developed –Allowed for development of graphical user interfaces (with menu, button, window etc. objects) More recently led to other object-oriented programming languages –C++, Java Also to Object-oriented databases and “intelligent” databases

69 Object Oriented Terms Class Diagram –A graphical model that shows all the classes of objects in the system –For every class (grouping of related objects) there may be specialized subclasses –Sublcasses “inherit” properties of classes above them –Allows for reusability

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71 System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) Variations Traditional approach: “Waterfall method” – only when one phase is finished does the project team drop down (fall) to the next phase –Fairly rigid approach – decisions at each phase get frozen –Can’t easily go back to previous phases (each phase would get “signed off”) –Good for traditional type of projects, e.g. payroll system or system with clearly definable requirements –Not as good for many of the new types of interactive and highly complex applications applications where it is hard to specify all requirements once and for all

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74 Differences in Approaches Traditional approach include feasibility study at beginning, with system investigation and systems analysis as the Analysis phase The objectory model includes only four phases Despite differences, the same overall tasks need to be carried out – e.g. planning, analysis, design and implementation

75 The “Classic” Waterfall Life Cycle Analysis Design Implementation Project planning

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77 Prototyping tool requirements Flexibility and power needed for fast development WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get) development of interface components Generation of complete programs, program skeletons etc. Rapid customization of software libraries or components Sophisticated error-checking and debugging capabilities In example on next slide you can easily “draw” the interface, by selecting buttons, menus etc. and dragging onto the screen (e.g. Visual Basic)

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79 Spiral life cycle Project starts out small, handling few risks Project expands in next iteration to address more risks Eventually the system is completed (all risks addressed) At the middle (start of the project) there is low risk and project is still small easy to manage You work out from the middle, expanding out your project

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81 SDLC Variations The pure waterfall approach is less used now The activities are still planning, analysis, design and implementation However, many activities are done now in an overlapping or concurrent manner Done for efficiency – when activities are not dependent on the outcome of others they can also be carried out

82 Iteration Iteration assumes no one gets the right results the first time Do some analysis, then some design, then do some further analysis, until you get it right Idea: not always realistic to complete analysis before starting design Waterfall no longer applies - Phases become blurred Decisions are not frozen at the end of each phase Good for projects where requirement specifications are hard to arrive at However, can lead to ambiguity –Harder to know how far you are along in the project –Could be hard to manage

83 Rational Unified Process

84 Variations based on an emphasis on people Sociotechnical systems –Systems that include both social and technical subsystems –Both social and technical subsystems must be considered –User-centered design/Participatory design –Example in text: Multiview Main idea: Human activity must be studied in detail (as well as technical aspects) – often forgotten!! –Example – study of activity in intensive care unit as basis for system design (versus “expert system” approach)

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86 Variations based on speed of development RAD – Rapid Application Development Try to speed up activities in each phase –E.g. scheduling intensive meetings of key participants to get decisions fast –Iterative development –Building working prototypes fast to get feedback (can then be directly expanded to finished system) –If not managed right can be risky

87 Causes of failure (and symptoms) in software development Requirements Analysis –No written requirements –Incompletely specified requirements –No user interface mock-up –No end –user involvement (can happen – may have talked to clients BUT not users!) Design –Lack of, or insufficient, design documents –Poorly specified data structures and file formats –Infrequent or no design reviews

88 Implementation –Lack of, or insufficient coding standards –Infrequent or no code reviews –Poor in-line code documentation Unit test and Integration –Insufficient module testing –Lack of proper or complete testing –Lack of an independent quality assurance group

89 Beta Test Release –Complete lack of a beta test –Insufficient duration for beta test –Insufficient number of beta testers –Wrong beta testers selected Maintenance –Too many bug reports –Fixing one bug introduces new bugs

90 Stats on Software Errors (large systems) Most software errors originate in the Analysis and Design phases (65%) Unfortunately, less than one-third of these errors are caught before acceptance testing begins About 35% of errors occur during coding Cost of fixing an error goes up the later it is caught! This is basis for emphasis in CASE on Analysis and Design

91 Cost to Repai r AnalysisDesignCodeUnit TestIntegration Test Maintenance Stage when the Error is found 200 x

92 Computer-Aided System Engineering (CASE) CASE tools: Software tools designed to help system analyst complete development tasks The CASE tool contains a database of information called a repository –Information about models –Descriptions –Data definitions –References that link models together Case tools can check the models to make sure they are complete and follow diagramming rules Also can check if the models are consistent Adds a number of capabilities around the repository

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94 Types of CASE tools Upper CASE tools –Support analyst during the analysis and design phases Lower CASE tools –Support for implementation – eg. generating programs Tools may be general, or designed for specific methodology (like for information engineering – TIs’ IEF, CoolTools) Examples of CASE tools –Visual Analyst for creating traditional models Called “integrated application development tool” –Rational Architect for object-oriented modelling Based on UML standard for object orientation Allows for reverse-engineering and code generation (can integrate with other tools like Visual C++ etc.)

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97 Background: The case for CASE Why need CASE? –As software systems get large and more complex they have become prone to unpredictable behaviour and bugs –Problem of systems that are not reliable, do not meet requirements or that just plain don’t work! –CASE tries to eliminate or reduce design and development problems –Ultimate goal of CASE is to separate the application program’s design (and analysis) from the program’s code implementation Generally, the more detached the design process is from actual coding, the better Traditional software development emphasized programming and debugging, CASE focuses on good analysis and design

98 What CASE can do to help Help to make analysis and design process more rigorous and complete, to reduce bugs later Examples of functions in tools: Provide support for diagramming (for analysis and design) Provide support for checking consistency of design Provide graphing support to help users visualize an existing or proposed information system (eg. Data flow diagrams) Detail the processes of your system in a hierarchical structure Produce executable applications based on your data flow diagrams (which can be made from point and click placements of icons) Integrate specific methodologies into windowing environments

99 Assemblers Compilers Debuggers CASE- Analysis + Design CASE- Code generators Evolution of Software Tools sophistication

100 Current Status of CASE A number of commercial products Some aspects (e.g. diagramming support) are widely applicable and useful Other features such as code generation are more specific –CASE tools not so successful for generic code generation –However, specific code generation is now being used for things such as user interface design