Citizenship and diversity: How the UK became a multicultural society

Question: How to you tell who is a citizen of a country & who is not? Jus solis v. Jus sanguinis as polar types  Jus solis: born on the soil (e.g Canada, US, France)  Jus sanguinis: blood tie (Germany until recently)

UK before WW II Ethnically & racially homogeneous Primary differences:  Religion  ‘Nationality’  Social class Social class: primary line of cleavage in party system

UK today: An ethnically diverse society Of a population of 57.9 million in 1999, about 3.8 million (6.7%) non-white Ethnic group% in 1999 White93.3% Black-Caribbean0.9% Black-African0.7% Black-other0.5% Indian1.6% Pakistani1.2% Bangladeshi0.5% Chinese0.2% Other Asian0.4% Other Asian0.7%

Transformation Reflects the empire come home: Post world WW II emigration from “new” commonwealth Bound up with changing notions of British citizenship

British Citizenship/subjecthood Initially, anyone born under the British crown – effectively anyone born within confines of the British Empire  Potentially 800 million

1948 British Nationality Act Triggered by 1946 Canadian Citizens Act Defines 6 categories  Citizenship of UK & Colonies  Citizens of Independent Commonwealth countries  Irish British subjects  British subjects without citizenship  British protected persons  Aliens Presumption: small flow, 10-20,000 per year

Events & issues 1948 Arrival of the Empire Windthrush, with 500 Jamaicans 1950s:  rising immigration ~50,000/year  Occasional constituency pressures  Colonial Office tries to discourage migration from new commonwealth  But resists efforts to stem flow 1958 Nottingham & Notting Hill Riots > pressure for change

1962 Commonwealth Immigration Act Distinguishes between citizens of the UK & Commonwealth (CUKC) subject to restriction & those who are not, depending on whether their passports were issued on `authority of London’ or by colonial or commonwealth government However, allows for family unification Rising immigration in anticipation of change: 136,000 in

From 1962 Continuing secondary migration as a result of family reunification ( ~50,000 per year) 1965 Passage of Race Relations Act 1968 Enoch Powell’s Rivers of Blood Speech (Wolverhampton) Problems with exclusions  Kenyan Asians – did not take/were denied Kenyan citizenship -- denied entry (Wilson govt’)  Vs. 1972: Ugandan Asians allowed (Heath gov’t)

Commonwealth Immigration of Act 1968  Require not only passport under authority of London, but also qualifying connection to UK

1971 Immigration Act Retain 1948 definitions Restricts right to reside in the UK to CUKC resident in the UK for 5 years or with grandparent born in the UK (patriality)

British Nationality Act 1981 Provides legal definition of citizenship for Great Britain and Northern Ireland: British Citizenship British Dependent Territories Citizenship (BTDC) British Overseas Citizenship (BOC) Latter two categories lack right to settle in the UK

Interpreting this saga Attempt to maintain open citizenship with special position both for the Irish & for older commonwealth From Windthrush, growing concern about unanticipated migration: Recourse to informal measures:  Press colonial gov’ts to stem tide  Informal queries to police about social problems Immigration continues, unabated

Conflicting pressures: Home Office, some MPs (often Labour) want to restrict) Colonial & later Commonwealth Office, anxious to maintain connections, resist Eventual restrictions, often tortuous Restrictions put in place, but paired with Race Relations Act, anti-discrimination legislation Immigration continues despite further restrictions

UK today Ethnically & racially diverse Many citizens – 2 nd & 3 rd generation No one single ethnic or national group dominant  Some better off than others Reluctance to accept asylum-seekers

Racial and ethnic incidents Occasional unrest Salmon Rushdie Affair Murder of Stephen Lawrence

Responses? Equality and Human Rights Commission ehrcehrc Acceptance of cultural pluralism  Reluctance to prohibit religious symbolism  But how much? Acceptance of multiculturalism within common values (Parekh report)?  But need of a new national story