Research Methodology

Topics of Discussion Theory construction for Research Research Design

Basic Concepts Concepts Constructs Definitions Variables Problem Hypotheses Laws Fact Theory Mode

Concepts Concepts are the basic building blocks of scientific investigation. It is a creation of human mind that are used in the classification and communication of the essence of some set of observation. Hence, it can be defined as abstract ideas generalized from particular facts. Example: Purchase

Constructs Constructs are specific types of concepts that exist at higher levels of abstraction. Generally, constructs are not directly tied to observations. They are inferred by some indirect method. Example: Satisfaction

Definitions Constitutive Definitions: Define concepts using other concepts and constructs. Operational Definitions: Specify the procedures by which the concept will be measured or manipulated. Example: Satisfaction: Constitutive Definition: The degree to which expectations are met in the performance of a product. Operational: The difference between prior and post performance expectations.

Variables A variable is simply a symbol or a concept that can assume any one of a set of values. The concept of variable is extremely important in measurement because it sets the limits on the range of values a measurement may take Example: Purchase : Can take 1 for purchase, 0 for no purchase. Satisfaction can take infinite number of values

Problems Problems can be defined as questions raised that are in need of a solution in an organization or society.

Hypotheses Hypotheses are conjectural statements of the relationship between two or more variables that carry clear implications for testing the stated relations

Theory A theory can be defined as an interrelated set of statements of relationship whose purpose is to explain and predict. When a provisional hypothesis is tested and verified and found to be true, it is designated as a scientific theory. Examples: Capital Asset Pricing Theories, Performance Satisfaction Theories, Consumer behavior theories.

Laws A law can be defined as a well-verified statement of relations about an invariable association among variables. Otherwise, when the theory is tested and accepted by scientists as correct under same conditions, it is regarded as a law.

Theory and Research Relationship between theory and research is interrelated. Theory helps for further research and research helps to formulation of new theory. Use of theory in Research: Suggesting a problem for a study giving hypothesis to be tested providing a conceptual model for delimiting the scope of the study helping selection of variables Making research finding intelligible.

Theoretical Framework When one reviews body of knowledge related to any subject one may get lost in it, since the subject is vast. To overcome this, one should know what is relevant and what is not relevant and how to determined it? Hence, theoretical framework is developed.

Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework stems from the theoretical framework and concentrates, usually one section of that theoretical framework. The theoretical framework is the basis of your study and the conceptual framework consists of the theories or issues in which your study is embedded. The conceptual framework to become the basis of your study.

Conceptual framework vs. Model a conceptual framework (term often used interchangeably with model - but incorrectly) gives a global view of the theory of the relations between the theoretical variables or group of variables. Theoretical variables are characteristics of the research units (e.g. tourists) of which the meaning and precision are not yet known Concept Visitor Satisfaction  Theoretical variable(s) facility satisfaction service satisfaction  experience satisfaction Concept  Tourist Profile Theoretical variables Demographics Preferred activities 

Conceptual model  A conceptual model is more specific: the researcher has both theoretical and empirical variables (how  variables - via indices and operationalisation - must be measured) and set these in a model that must be tested (used in quantitative research) A conceptual model shows: the empirical variables, the underlying relationships between and research elements upon where variables influence each other

An example Conceptual or theoretical Framework Socioeconomic Status Academic Ability Academic Achievement

Conceptual or Theoretical Model Income Job Prestige Socioeconomic Status Academic Ability Academic Achievement Grades Level of Schooling attained Math skills Language skills

Characteristics of a Model Level of Analysis Boundaries Specificity Construct relationship statement and Assumptions.

Limitations Calls for high level of skills and mathematics Indiscriminate use of models Too narrow

Research Design

Research Design “ The research design constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. It is the plan and structure of investigation so conceived as to obtained answer to research questions. It aids the researcher in the allocation of his limited resources by posing crucial choices.”

Components of a Research Design Methodology selection and justification for each hypothesis or research question. The Data collection procedure The importance questions should be asked Population and sampling procedures Instruments to be used in data collection, if experiment research Secondary data: Sources, strengths and limitations Data Analysis: Detailed discussion of analysis tools and data supports and assumptions of the methods selected.

Purpose of the Study The nature and the purpose of the study depends on the stage to which the knowledge about the research area / topic has advanced. If a study attempt to explore new areas of organizational research, it is called as exploratory study. If a study try to describe certain characteristics of the phenomena, it is called as descriptive study. If a study examine the relationship between variables, it is called as hypotheses testing.

Hypotheses Hypotheses are conjectural statements of the relationship between two or more variables that carry clear implications for testing the stated relations. The assembled facts are transformed by a researcher into constructs. The constructs are them assembled into a provisional hypothesis.

Formats of Hypotheses Propositions If – Then Statements Directional and Non-directional Null and Alternative Hypotheses

Formats To test the relationships or difference exist Propositions: Employees who are more healthy will take sick Leave less Frequently. If – Then If employees are more healthy, then they will take sick leave less frequently.

Directional and Non-Directional The Direction of relationship is indicated Positive relationship between price and supply of a good Non-Directional: Do postulate a relationships or difference, but offer not direction of these relationships or difference There is a relationship between experience and productivity

Null Hypothesis These are hypothetical statements denying what are explicitly found relationship. It makes prediction that in the general population no relationships or no difference exits between groups on a variable.

Alternative Hypothesis The investigator makes prediction about the expected outcome for the population of the study. The prediction often comes from prior research that suggests a potential outcome that the researcher may expect. This alternative hypothesis may be directional or non-directional.

Propositions and Hypotheses Propositions link concepts together with specific relationships Hypotheses link variables together with specific relationships Video Games Violence Time spent playing Game X Observed ‘violent acts’ Over time Y

Research Questions & Hypotheses Research questions are interrogative statement or questions that the investigator seeks to answer. They are used frequently in social science research and especially in survey studies. Hypotheses, on the other hand, are predictions the researcher hold about the relationship among variables. They are numeric estimates of population values based on data collected from samples. Hypotheses typically are used in experiments in which investigators compare groups. However, hypotheses is often recommend in formal research project, or thesis as a means of starting the direction a study will take.

Types of Investigation Depends on the research questions the researcher can determine a type of investigation. The selection of the type of investigation determine the extent of researcher interference with the research study. The type of investigation may be causal or correlation.

Causal Investigation When the research questions try to establish a definite cause and effect relationship, the causal investigation is necessary. Under this type of investigation, few factors are identified to established the relationships. Example: Does advertisement cause sales?

Correlation Investigation In most of the business research there are multiple factors that influences one another and the researcher might be asked to identify the crucial factors associated with the problem. This situation need correction study to answer this question. Example: Determinants of Sales Factors determining share Price

Researcher Interference with the Study The extend of the researcher interference with the normal flow of work at the work place has directly related with the type of investigation undertaken. A correlational study is conducted in the natural environment with minimum interference by the researcher.

Causal Study and Researcher Interference If the study aims to establish cause-and-effect relationship, the researcher tries to manipulate certain variables. Hence, there is considerable researcher interference with the natural and normal work setting. Some times researcher may required to create an artificial setting where the cause-and-effect relationships can be studied by manipulating certain variables or controlling some variables.

Level of Interference Minimal Moderate Excessive Mere administering a questionnaire Moderate Manipulating variables Excessive Artificial setting

Study Setting Depends on the type of investigation and the researcher interference, the study setting will be determined. Correlational studies are invariably conducted in non-contrived settings, whereas most rigorous causal studies are done in contrived lab settings. The study settings may be classified into three categories namely; field study, filed experiment and lab experiment.

Field Study Correlational studies done in organizations are called field study. Example: Relationship between interest rates and bank deposit patterns of clients.

Field Experiment Manipulation of one or two variables and study the impact on the dependent variables. Example: Different rate of interest for Rural branch of the banks and urban branch of the banks and then study the difference in client’s behavior.

Lab Experiment New or artificial work or other environment will created and study the problem to get best results.

Unit of Analysis It is an element in a population of a study. The unit of analysis will vary from study to study depends on the purpose of the study or the research questions. A unit is a source of information for the study. The number of unit of study will also vary from study to study. A unit may be an individual, an organisation, group of people, or a division or a country and etc.

Time Horizon of a Research Study To answer the research question a research may collect fact once in a particular time and find out the answer for the question or he may required to collect facts in different time period to answer the questions. On the basis of the time involved to answer the research questions, we can divided the studies into two categories namely, cross-sectional or longitudinal studies.

Cross-Sectional Studies A study can be done in which data are gathered once in order to answer a research question. Such studies are called as cross-sectional studies.

Longitudinal Studies Some research questions may required to study the people or phenomena at more than one point in time in order to answer the questions. Such kind of studies are called as longitudinal studies.