Environmental Science A Study of Interrelationships Tenth Edition Enger • Smith Chapter 19 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Regulating Hazardous Materials Chapter 19

Outline Hazardous and Toxic Materials in Our Env. Hazardous and Toxic - Some Definitions Defining Hazardous Waste Issues Involved in Setting Regulations Environmental Problems Health Risks Associated with Wastes Hazardous-Waste Dumps Hazardous-Waste Management Choices International Trade in Hazardous Wastes

Hazardous and Toxic Materials in Our Environment At sites around the world, accidental or purposeful releases of hazardous and toxic chemicals are contaminating the land, air and water. Increasingly, governments and international agencies are attempting to control the growing problem.

Life Cycle of Toxic Substances

Hazardous and Toxic - Some Definitions Hazardous - EPA defines hazardous materials as having one or more of the following characteristics: Ignitability (Fire hazard) Corrosiveness (Corrodes material) Reactivity (Unstable) Toxicity (May release toxins) Some hazardous materials fall into several categories.

Hazardous and Toxic - Some Definitions Terms are incorrectly used interchangeably. Toxic - Commonly refers to a narrow group of substances that cause human injury or death. Hazardous - Broader term; refers to all dangerous materials that create a human health, or environmental problem.

Hazardous and Toxic - Some Definitions Hazardous Wastes: By-products of industrial, business, or household activities for which there is no immediate use. Must be disposed of in an appropriate manner. Stringent regulation pertaining to production, storage, and disposal.

Defining Hazardous Waste U.S. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) 1976: Yields one of the most common definitions of hazardous:

RCRA Substances are considered toxic or hazardous if they: Cause or significantly contribute to an increase in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible, or incapacitating reversible, illness; or pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when properly treated, stored, transported, disposed of, or otherwise managed.

Hazardous and Toxic - Some Definitions Numerous Types: Heavy metals; Organic wastes Many Forms: Liquid, Sludge, Ash Improper handling and disposal can affect human health and the environment through contamination. Immediate or long-term concerns.

Hazardous versus Toxic United Nations Environment Program estimates total annual international generation of hazardous wastes between 330 - 550 million tons. U.S. EPA indicates U.S. generates about 40 million tons of hazardous waste annually.

Issues Involved in Setting Regulations Identification of Hazardous & Toxic Materials List often limited to current offenders and substances already linked to adverse effects. Asbestos DDT

Issues Involved in Setting Regulations Setting Exposure Limits Nearly all substances are toxic in sufficient quantities. People can be exposed in three ways: Inhalation Consumption Absorption

Setting Exposure Limits Typically the regulatory agency will determine the level of exposure at which test animals are affected (threshold level) and then set the exposure level longer to allow for a safety margin. Must account for species-specific thresholds.

Issues Involved in Setting Regulations Acute vs. Chronic Toxicity Effects of massive doses at once (acute toxicity) and small doses over time (chronic toxicity) differ. Chronic much harder to detect as effects may not surface for long periods of time. Synergism Assessing effects of chemical mixtures. Most toxicity studies done on a single compound.

Issues Involved in Setting Regulations Persistent and Non-Persistent Pollutants Persistent toxins remain in the environment, essentially unchanged, for long periods, and build-up leads to chronic problems. Most are man-made. Polychlorinated Biphenyls PCB’s

Persistent and Non-Persistent Pollutants Non-Persistent toxins do not remain for a long period, are often biodegradable, and usually responsible for acute problems. Many toxic organic materials can be destroyed by decomposer organisms. Organophosphates Do not accumulate in food chain.

Environmental Problems Caused by Hazardous Wastes Hazardous wastes enter the environment in many ways: Evaporation Fugitive Emissions Improper Disposal Improper Labeling and Record-Keeping

Health Risks Associated with Hazardous Wastes Each year, roughly 1,000 new chemicals are produced and distributed. 70,000 already in daily use. Industrial chemical products and by-products often handled and disposed of improperly. May pose human health hazard. Problem of linking a particular chemical to specific diseases is compounded by lack of toxicity data.

Hazardous Waste Dumps: A Legacy of Abuse Prior to RCRA in 1976, hazardous waste was essentially unregulated. Hazardous wastes were simply buried or dumped. Sites typically located convenient to the industry and were often in environmentally sensitive areas. In North America alone, currently over 25,000 abandoned or uncontrolled sites.

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act CERCLA or “SUPERFUND” (1980) Develop comprehensive program to set priority list. Make responsible parties pay for clean-up when possible. Set up $1.6 billion Hazardous Waste Trust Fund. Advance scientific and technological capabilities in hazardous waste management, treatment, and disposal.

CERCLA National Priority List Under CERCLA, over 44,000 sites were evaluated, and about 11,000 were considered serious enough to warrant further investigation. About 1,200 of those sites were placed on National Priority List.

CERCLA Because any contributor to the site can be held responsible for entire clean-up costs, many companies find it cost-effective to hire lawyers and fight their inclusion into clean-up costs. But by 2004, there were about 1,200 sites on the National Priorities list. About 900 cleaned up. Most of remaining sites in progress. $27 billion in total expenditures.

Toxic Chemical Releases In 1987, any industrial plant that released at least 23,000 kg of toxic pollutants into the environment was required to file a report. Primarily manufacturing industries. Allowed EPA to target specific industries for enforcement action.

Toxic Chemical Releases About 2.8 billion kg of toxic chemicals reported released into the environment by industry in 2001. Primary industries involved are mining, power generation, chemical, and metal manufacturing.

Sources of Toxic Releases

Hazardous Waste Management Choices In the past, management of hazardous waste was always added on to the end of the industrial process. In recent years, EPA and other regulatory agencies have emphasized pollution prevention and waste minimization.

Hazardous Waste Management Choices EPA Pollution Prevention Hierarchy Reduce amount of pollution at the source. Recycle wastes whenever possible. Treat wastes to reduce hazard and / or volume. Dispose of wastes on land or incinerate them as last resort.

Pollution-Prevention Hierarchy

Reducing Waste at the Source Pollution Prevention Encourage changes that prevent hazardous wastes from being produced. U.S. army phasing out lead bullets. Waste Minimization Manufacturing changes to reduce waste. Replace hazardous solvents. Allow water to evaporate from waste to reduce volume.

Recycling Wastes Use wastes for another purpose, thus eliminating them as “waste.” Burn waste oils and solvents as fuel. Incorporate ash or other solid wastes into concrete or other building materials.

Treating Wastes Reduce amounts of waste or modify hazardous nature. Neutralization Biodegradation Air Stripping Carbon Absorption Precipitation

Disposal Methods Currently, the two most common methods for disposing of hazardous wastes are incineration and land disposal. Incineration (Thermal Treatment) Burn wastes at high temperature. Can destroy 99.9999% of hazardous materials High costs and concerns about emissions have kept incineration from becoming a major method in North America.

Disposal Methods Land Disposal is the primary method used when all other options have been exhausted. Deep-Well Injection Discharge or Liquids Into Water Sources Placement of Liquid Wastes into Surface Holding Areas Storage of Solid Wastes in Hazardous Waste Landfills

Disposal Methods Immobilization puts waste into a solid form that is easier handle, and is less likely to enter the surrounding area. Fixation Solidification

International Trade in Hazardous Wastes Concern of industrialized countries exporting wastes to poorer, developing countries lacking administrative and technical resources to safely dispose of the waste. Basel Convention (1989) Minimize generation of hazardous wastes and control and reduce transboundary movements to protect human health and the environment.

Hazardous-Waste Management Program Evolution Major Stages Identify problem and enact legislation. Designate lead agency. Establish rules and regulations. Develop treatment and disposal capacity. Create compliance and enforcement program.

Review Hazardous and Toxic Materials in Our Env. Hazardous and Toxic - Some Definitions Defining Hazardous Waste Issues Involved in Setting Regulations Environmental Problems Health Risks Associated with Wastes Hazardous-Waste Dumps Hazardous-Waste Management Choices International Trade in Hazardous Wastes