The Age of Napoleon

The Thermidorian Reaction During 1794, opposition to Robespierre grew. On 9 Thermidor (July 27) he was arrested and executed the next day. Many of his other Jacobin supporters followed him to the guillotine. Power in the National Convention passed from radicals to the wealthy bourgeoisie, who ended the Terror.

Constitution of 1795 (Year III) National Convention prepared a new constitution. Created a two house parliament Council of Elders had 250 members Council of 500 Executive power was held by five Directors who were elected by the Council of Elders. National Convention was dissolved on Oct 26, 1795 and the Directory came into being.

The Directory System of indirect elections and five man executive was designed to be a moderate form of government. However, they were repressive in their desire to continue as a government of the center. It did have a large political spectrum. Left Center Right Babeuvists Neo-Jacobins Royalists Ultra Royalists

The Directory Conspiracy of Equals led by Gracchus Babeuf sans-culottes faction that sought to overthrow government and abolish property precursor to communism Easily suppressed by Directory and Babeuf executed Elections in 1797 a victory for royalists but annulled by government. Neo-Jacobin revival also suppressed by government. François-Noël Gracchus Babeuf

French Military Victories War of the First Coalition continued. Draft of all able bodied men in Aug. 1793. 1793-94, French succeeded in preventing invasion. During 1794-95, French occupy Low Countries, Rhineland, Switzerland and parts of Spain. Treaty of Basel in March/June 1795 ended war with Prussians and Spanish, but war with Austria and Britain continued.

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) Born of lesser Corsican nobility. Commissioned Lieutenant in French artillery in 1785. 1793: helped recapture Toulon from the British. 1795: defended National Convention from mob action. Married Josephine de Beauharnais (1763-1814).

Bonaparte’s Military Successes 1796: received command of French Army in Italy, defeating the Austrians. Treaty of Campo Formio ended War of the 1st Coalition with Austrians in Oct. 1797. France annexed Austrian Netherlands, Austria got Venice. Austrians recognized the independence of Cisalpine Rep. (French Satellite) Britain fought on alone.

The Egyptian Campaign 1798: Napoleon invades Egypt to disrupt British Empire. Discovers Rosetta Stone Napoleon winds Battle of the Pyramids in July, 1798 against Mamelukes British Fleet under Horatio Nelson (1758-1805) defeats French at Battle of the Nile. Napoleon left his army to return to France.

War of the Second Coalition (1798-1801) While Napoleon was in Egypt, Britain forms alliances with Russia, Austria, Portugal, Naples and the Ottoman Empire to oppose the French. Russia left the alliance the next year. France suffered military defeats in Italy and Germany. Military defeats combined with the continuing economic and political crisis and France further weakened the position of the Directory.

Coup d’Ètat de 18 Brumaire In October 1799, Napoleon landed in Southern France. With help of two of the five directors (Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès and Roger Ducos), his brother Lucien who was speaker of the Council of 500, and Talleyrand he plotted to seize power. They then used troops on Nov. 9th to seize control of the government. Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès

Constitution of 1799 (Year VIII) Drafting a new constitution, a Consulate of three rulers was created. Napoleon had himself elected First Consul (the other two had little power) to rule for a term of ten years. In a plebiscite in 1802, Napoleon was made First Consul for life with the right to name his successor (this was reaffirmed in the Constitution of Year X)

The Napoleonic Style Used power of personality to gain power and position. No major aristocracy to oppose his power. Culture of “Notables” enacted (those who had risen on merit like himself) used to consolidate rule.

Administration and Reforms Curtailed political freedoms and liberties. Established efficient central government and bureaucracy. Appointed prefect to administer each department and sub-prefects for each district. Each answered to him, further centralizing power. Eliminated corruption and waste. Reformed the tax system; created central bank. Paid government bonds, putting nation on sound financial footing. Reformed educational system.

The Religious Settlement Napoleon was himself a deist or atheist. He believed however, that the conflict with the Catholic Church should end. The Concordat of 1801 established reconciliation with Pope Pius VII (r. 1800-1823). It governed the relationship between the Church and state until 1905.

The Concordat of 1801 Granted the Church special status as the religion of the majority of the French Catholicism was not the established religion of the state. Government had authority to nominate bishops then invested by the pope. Bishops would appoint the priests. System established under Civil Constitution of the Clergy was ended. Loss of church lands accepted by pope. Salaries of clergy paid by the French gov’t.

The Code Napoleon Napoleon continued the process of reorganizing the legal system. In 1800, appointed a commission of legal experts to draft a new civil code. Civil code was enacted in 1804 and renamed the Napoleonic Code in 1807.

The Code Napoleon Made all citizens equal under the law and abolished privileges by birth. People could be employed as they pleased, a gov’t employees would be hired by ability. Reaffirmed rights of property gained during the revolution, as well as the bed of manorialism/feudalism for the peasants. Included the principle of freedom of religion. State took precedence over the rights of individuals. Men were granted greater authority over family.

Napoleon Consolidates Power January 1804, Bonaparte's police uncovered an assassination plot against him sponsored by the Bourbons. Bonaparte then used this incident to justify the re-creation of a hereditary monarchy in France, with himself as Emperor, on the theory that a Bourbon restoration would be impossible once the Bonapartist succession was entrenched in the constitution.

Napoleon Crowned Napoleon crowned himself Emperor on Dec 2, 1804 at Notre Dame. Claims that he seized the crown out of the hands of Pope Pius VII during the ceremony in order to avoid subjecting himself to the authority of the pontiff are false. After the Imperial regalia had been blessed by the Pope, Napoleon crowned himself before crowning his wife Joséphine as Empress. At Milan's cathedral on May 26, 1805, Napoleon was crowned King of Italy with the Iron Crown of Lombardy.

A Fragile Peace The War of the Second Coalition ended with Austria at the Treaty of Luneville in Feb. 1801. The British continued the war, forcing the surrender of the French remaining in Egypt in summer of 1801 The treaty of Amiens, signed in March 1802, created a fragile peace between France and Britain.

War of the Third Coalition (1805-07) Both sides were not content with current peace. In 1803, Great Britain renewed its war against France. In 1805, Austria and Russia joined the coalition (Prussia remained neutral at the outset.) Napoleon moved into Germany, defeating the Austrians at the Battle of Ulm on Oct 17, 1805.

War at Sea Throughout 1804-1805, Napoleon planned to invade Britain. The British Navy blockaded French controlled ports throughout Europe, keeping most of the fleet bottled up. Across the globe both sides engaged the other, attempting to disrupt the trade of the other side.

Battle of Trafalgar Just four days after Napoleon’s victory at Ulm, the combined French and Spanish fleets were smashed at the Battle of Trafalgar (Oct. 21, 1805). The strategic daring of Admiral Nelson and the tactical superiority of the British fleet won the day. With reduced naval power, Napoleon had to suspend his invasion plans.

War on Land Moving East from Ulm, Napoleon defeated a combined Austrian and Russian force at Austerlitz on Dec. 2, 1805. Austria signed Treaty of Pressburg, relinquishing most of its Italian possessions (Third Coalition dissolves). In July, 1806, Napoleon reorganized western Germany into a satellite called the Confederation of the Rhine (provided buffer).

French Victories on Land Napoleon dissolved the Holy Roman Empire (Francis II became Francis I of Austria) War of Fourth Coalition begins. Prussia entered the war, on Oct, 14, 1806 Napoleon defeated them a the Battles of Jena and Auerstadt. Napoleon took the capital Berlin in late October. Napoleon moved into East Prussia in spring, 1807, defeating the Russians at Friedland on June 13th.

The Treaties of Tilsit Napoleon meets with Tsar Alexander I and Frederick William III of Prussia. Treaties end War of Fourth Coalition. Prussia losses half of its territory to Saxony and The Grand Duchy of Warsaw (Polish satellite of France) Russia was given a free hand to deal with the Ottoman Empire in return for support against Britain.

1807

We Are Family… Treaties allow Napoleon to place his family members on the thrones of Europe. Brother Joseph – King of Naples (and later Spain), replaced by Marshall Murat and Napoleon’s sister Caroline. Brother Louis – King of Holland Brother Jerome – King of Westphalia Napoleon divorces Josephine in 1810, marring princes Marie Louise of Austria (Habsburg) and bears him a son the following year. Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte

The Continental System Unable to beat the British at sea, Napoleon launched the Continental System with the Berlin Decrees of 1806 (expanded through the Milan Decree of 1807). Any ship from Britain of caring British goods were banned from European ports. The British responded with the Orders in Council, requiring all ships entering or leaving European ports to stop at British ports.

The Continental System The two blockades caused considerable economic hardship across Europe. The blockade hurt British trade and caused soaring unemployment and rioting in 1811. France suffered from a lack of imported raw materials. French satellites suffered as well, causing widespread discontent, even though smuggling was rampant.

The Peninsular War (1807-1814) Portugal and France’s ally Spain both failed to enforce the Continental System. In late 1807, the French occupied both nations. In early 1808, Napoleon deposed the Bourbon monarchy and installed his brother Joseph on the throne. The Spanish rose in revolt, which was brutally suppressed by the French. Francisco Goya: The Third of May, 1808

The Peninsular War (1807-1814) The British sent troops under Sir Arthur Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington) to support the insurgents. The British Naval superiority was used to support the expeditionary force. The war continued until 1814, slowing wearing down the French and keeping vital troops and supplies from other fronts.

War of the Fifth Coalition (1809) Along with British and Spanish warfare on the Iberian Peninsula, Austria rejoined the fight against Napoleon in spring 1809. Napoleon defeated the Austrians at Wagram in July 1809, occupying Vienna. Under the Treaty of Schonbrunn, Austria ceded land to Bavaria, Warsaw and France. Napoleon takes Pope Pius VII prisoner for opposing Continental System and annexed the Papal States.

Changes in the Colonial Empires Spain is convinced to return Louisiana to France, but due to French naval inferiority, Napoleon sells it to the United States in 1803. In Haiti, a slave revolt led by Toussaint L'Ouverture leads to Haitian independence in 1804. The Spanish colonies took opportunities as well under Simon Bolivar to gain independence.

The Russian Campaign, 1812 Tensions rise between Napoleon and Tsar Alexander I refuses to support the Continental System. Napoleon raises a “Grande Armée” of 691,501 men to invade Russia in June, 1812. By mid August, French advance 300 miles with no major battles. Russians retreat, trading for space and time and burning all left behind (“scorched earth”)

The Russian Campaign, 1812 On Sept.7, the Russians under Mikhail Kutuzov battle French at Borodino, 75 miles west of Moscow; no clear victor. On Sept. 14, Napoleon entered a burned Moscow. Tsar Alexander refused to surrender. Low on supplies, Napoleon began to retreat on Oct. 19th The Russian winter soon set in, and by December, only 22,000 men in the Grande Armee remained alive.

War of the Sixth Coalition (1812-14) A.k.a. – Wars of Liberation. Coalition of Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and a number of German States (notably Bavaria) to take advantage of Napoleon’s Russian defeat. Napoleon raises an army of around 400,000 French troops supported by a quarter of a million French allied troops to contest control of Germany. In Germany, national resistance grows in Bavaria, Prussia and Austria, who join the Russians in opposing Napoleon. Revolts in Spain continue to drain men and resources.

The Battle of Nations The Battle of Leipzig, Oct. 16-19 1813. Napoleon soundly defeated by Russians, Prussians and Austrians in the largest battle in European history to that point.

The Fall of Napoleon Napoleon was offered a peace settlement keeping his throne, but he refused. Nov. 1813, the Dutch revolted. The British army led by the Duke of Wellington advanced from Spain into Southern France. Jan. 1814, Russian, Prussian and Austrian forces invade France and enter Paris on March 31st.

The Abdication April 11, 1814, Napoleon abdicated. Retains title and exiled to island of Elba. Bourbons restored with Louis XVIII (r.1814-24), younger brother of Louis XVI. Napoleon’s abdication order

Reasons for Napoleon’s Fall Imperial overreach – the attempt to defeat all enemies and dominate Europe. National resistance – the despotic nature of the empire led to nationalist revolts. Loss of support at home – French war weary after 25 years of war.