Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings PowerPoint ® Lecture Presentations for Biology Eighth Edition Neil Campbell and Jane Reece Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp Animal Behavior

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Animal behavior is based on physiological systems and processes A behavior is the nervous system’s response to an internal or external stimulus and is carried out by the muscular or the hormonal system Behavior helps an animal – Obtain food – Find a partner for sexual reproduction – Maintain homeostasis – Survive Behavior is subject to natural selection Ethology is the scientific study of animal behavior, particularly in natural environments

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings According to early ethologist Niko Tinbergen, four questions should be asked about behavior: 1.What stimulus elicits the behavior, and what physiological mechanisms mediate the response? 2.How does the animal’s experience during growth and development influence the response mechanisms? 3.How does the behavior aid survival and reproduction? 4.What is the behavior’s evolutionary history?

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Proximate causation, or “how” explanations, focus on – Environmental stimuli that trigger a behavior – Genetic, physiological, and anatomical mechanisms underlying a behavior Ultimate causation, or “why” explanations, focus on – Evolutionary significance of a behavior Behavioral ecology is the study of the ecological and evolutionary basis for animal behavior It integrates proximate and ultimate explanations for animal behavior

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings There are many different types of animal behavior- courtship, defensive, foraging, migratory, parental, territorial They all fall into two main categories – Innate or Instinct: fixed action patterns, oriented movement, behavior rhythms, signals and communication – Learned: imprinting, habituation, spatial learning, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, cognition/reasoning

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Innate Behavior/Instinct Behavior that is developmentally fixed where nearly all individuals in a population exhibit virtually the same behavior, despite internal and environmental differences during development and through out life. An inborn, unlearned behavior with strong genetic influence. Brainstorm….

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fixed Action Patterns A fixed action pattern is a sequence of unlearned, innate behaviors that is unchangeable Once initiated, it is usually carried to completion A fixed action pattern is triggered by an external cue known as a sign stimulus In male stickleback fish, the stimulus for attack behavior is the red underside of an intruder When presented with unrealistic models, as long as some red is present, the attack behavior occurs

Fig (b) (a)

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Oriented Movement Environmental cues can trigger movement in a particular direction Include kinesis, taxis and migration

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Kinesis and Taxis A kinesis is a simple change in activity or turning rate in response to a stimulus – For example, sow bugs become more active in dry areas and less active in humid areas. Though sow bug behavior varies with humidity, sow bugs do not move toward or away from specific moisture levels. Dry open area Moist site under leaf

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings A taxis is a more or less automatic, oriented movement toward or away from a stimulus – Many stream fish exhibit a positive taxis and automatically swim in an upstream direction. This taxis prevents them from being swept away and keeps them facing the direction from which food will come. Can be seen with a variety of stimuli such as light, gravity, water and in other organisms – Hydrotropism: plant’s response to water – Gravitropism: plant’s response to gravity – Chemotropism: plant’s response to a chemical substance – Thigmotropism: plant’s response to touch

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Migration Migration is a regular, long-distance change in location Animals can orient themselves using – The position of the sun and their circadian clock, an internal 24- hour clock that is an integral part of their nervous system – The position of the North Star – The Earth’s magnetic field

Fig. 51-5

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Behavioral Rhythms Some animal behavior is affected by the animal’s circadian rhythm, a daily cycle of rest and activity Behaviors such as migration and reproduction are linked to changing seasons, or a circannual rhythm Some behaviors are linked to lunar cycles – For example, courtship in fiddler crabs occurs during the new and full moon

Fig. 51-6

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Animal Signals and Communication In behavioral ecology, a signal is a behavior that causes a change in another animal’s behavior Communication is the transmission and reception of signals Animals communicate using visual, chemical, tactile, and auditory signals The type of signal is closely related to lifestyle and environment

Fig (a) Orienting(b) Tapping(c) “Singing”

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Honeybees show complex communication with symbolic language A bee returning from the field performs a dance to communicate information about the position of a food source Video

Fig. 51-8a (a) Worker bees

Fig. 51-8b Round dance (food near)(b)

Fig. 51-8c Waggle dance (food distant)(c) 30° Beehive A B C Location 30° BAC

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Pheromones Many animals that communicate through odors emit chemical substances called pheromones Pheromones are effective at very low concentrations When a minnow or catfish is injured, an alarm substance in the fish’s skin disperses in the water, inducing a fright response among fish in the area

Fig Minnows before alarm (a) Minnows after alarm (b)

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Learning links experience and behavior Learning is the modification of behavior based on specific experiences through development – Includes Imprinting, Habituation

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Imprinting Imprinting is a behavior that includes learning and innate components and is generally irreversible It is distinguished from other learning by a sensitive period A sensitive period is a limited developmental phase that is the only time when certain behaviors can be learned – An example of imprinting is young geese following their mother. Konrad Lorenz showed that when baby geese spent the first few hours of their life with him, they imprinted on him as their parent

Fig a (a) Konrad Lorenz and geese

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Conservation biologists have taken advantage of imprinting in programs to save the whooping crane from extinction Young whooping cranes can imprint on humans in “crane suits” who then lead crane migrations using ultralight aircraft

Fig b (b) Pilot and cranes

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Habituation Habituation is a simple form of learning that involves loss of responsiveness to stimuli that convey little or no information – For example, birds will stop responding to alarm calls from their species if these are not followed by an actual attack

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Spatial Learning Spatial learning is a more complex modification of behavior based on experience with the spatial structure of the environment Moving the classroom desks into a new configuration changes students’ behavior Niko Tinbergen showed how digger wasps use landmarks to find nest entrances

Fig a Pinecone Nest EXPERIMENT

Fig b RESULTS Nest No nest

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Cognitive Maps A cognitive map is an internal representation of spatial relationships between objects in an animal’s surroundings – For example, Clark’s nutcrackers can find food hidden in caches located halfway between particular landmarks – Another example, many people use a number of landmarks when giving directions to a specific location instead of just street names and distances.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Associative Learning In associative learning, animals associate one feature of their environment with another – For example, a white-footed mouse will avoid eating caterpillars with specific colors after a bad experience with a distasteful monarch butterfly caterpillar There are a few types of associative learning – Classical conditioning – Operant conditioning

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Classical conditioning is a type of associative learning in which an arbitrary stimulus is associated with a reward or punishment – For example, a dog that repeatedly hears a bell before being fed will salivate in anticipation at the bell’s sound – Another example, during your 4 th period class, no matter when it is held, you begin to get hungry due to lunch being held during or after 4 th period.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Operant conditioning is a type of associative learning in which an animal learns to associate one of its behaviors with a reward or punishment It is also called trial-and-error learning – For example, a rat that is fed after pushing a lever will learn to push the lever in order to receive food – Another example, a predator may learn to avoid a specific type of prey associated with a painful experience

Fig

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Cognition and Problem Solving Cognition or Insight is a process of knowing that may include awareness, reasoning, recollection, and judgment – For example, honeybees can distinguish “same” from “different”

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Problem solving is the process of devising a strategy to overcome an obstacle – For example, chimpanzees can stack boxes in order to reach suspended food Some animals learn to solve problems by observing other individuals – For example, young chimpanzees learn to crack palm nuts with stones by copying older chimpanzees

Fig

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Development of Learned Behaviors Development of some behaviors occurs in distinct stages – For example a white-crowned sparrow memorizes the song of its species during an early sensitive period – The bird then learns to sing the song during a second learning phase

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Both genetic makeup and environment contribute to the development of behaviors Animal behavior is governed by complex interactions between genetic and environmental factors-Nature vs. Nurture

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Regulatory Genes and Behavior A master regulatory gene can control many behaviors – For example, a single gene controls many behaviors of the male fruit fly courtship ritual Multiple independent genes can contribute to a single behavior – For example, in green lacewings, the courtship song is unique to each species; multiple independent genes govern different components of the courtship song

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Genetically Based Behavioral Variation in Natural Populations When behavioral variation within a species corresponds to environmental variation, it may be evidence of past evolution

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Social Behavior Many animals are highly social species and they interact with each other in complex ways. Social behaviors can help members of the species survive and reproduce more successfully. Several behavioral patterns for animal societies include: – Agnostic behavior – Dominance hierarchies – Territoriality – Altruistic behavior

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Agonistic Behavior Aggressive behavior that occurs as a result of competition for food or other resources. Animals will show aggression toward other members that tend to use the same resources. A typical form of aggression is fighting between competitors.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Dominance Hierarchies Dominance hierarchies or pecking orders occur when members in a group have established which members are the most dominant. The more dominant male will often become the leader of the group and will usually have the best pickings of the food and females in the group. Once the dominance hierarchy is established, competition and tension within the group is reduced.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Territoriality Territoriality is a common behavior when food and nesting sites are in short supply. Usually the male species will establish and defend his territory within a group in order to protect important resources.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Altruistic Behavior Altruistic behavior is unselfish behavior that benefits another organism in the group at the individual’s expense because it advances the genes of the group.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Symbiotic Relationships Many organisms that coexist exhibit some type of symbiotic relationship. Thre are three basic types of symbiotic relationships: – Mutualism – Commensalism – Parasitism

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Mutualism Relationship in which both organisms benefit A well known example of mutualism is the relationship between ungulates (such as cows) and bacteria within their intestines. The ungulates benefit from the cellulase produced by the bacteria, which facilitates digestion; the bacteria benefit from having a stable supply of nutrients in the host environment Brainstorm more examples…

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Clown Fish and Sea Anemone Oxpecker and Impala Hummingbird and Dianthus Langer Monkey and Cow Cleaner Shrimp and Zebra Moray Eel Lichen

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Commensalism Relationship in which one organism lives off another without harming the “host” individual Barnacles adhering to the skin of a whale or shell of a mollusk: Barnacles are crustaceans whose adults are sedentary. The motile larvae find a suitable surface and then undergo a metamorphosis to the sedentary form. The barnacle benefits by finding a habitat where nutrients are available. The presence of barnacle populations does not appear to hamper or enhance the survival of the animals carrying them.

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Remora Shark and Whales Cattle Egret and Cattle Thistle and anything walking by Fishes

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Parasitism Relationship in which one actually harms its host

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Tick Lice Worms Fish and Sea Lamprey