Acting As If You Are Hypnotized Psychology 405-001 3-3-03 By: Nick Hahn, Alison Bowen, and Shanell Ryan

What is Hypnosis? The views of what hypnosis is have differentiated throughout history and into current times. Is it a trance? Is it a cure for illnesses? Is it related to sleep and dreaming? Is it a separate and unique state of awareness?

Ancient History of Hypnosis Hypnosis was used in religious and healing ceremonies before any records of hypnosis existed. The study of ceremonies of primitive people in Africa, Australia, and elsewhere performed inductions by rhythmic chanting, monotonous drumbeats, together with strained fixations of the eyes accompanied by catalepsy of the rest of the body.

Religious History of Hypnosis In the 18th, Father Gassner, a clergyman, used hypnosis to cast out devils that possessed his patients. He conducted hypnosis with a gold crucifix where he told his patients in advance that they would fall to the floor and “die”. During this period of “death” he would cast out the devils from their body and then restore them to normal life again.

Almost Modern History of Hypnosis Franz Mesmer (1733-1815) was a medical doctor who helped bring hypnosis out of the realm of witchcraft. He thought hysterical disorders resulted from imbalances of magnetic fluid present in the body. He believed that the metal of the cross that Gassner used was responsible for magnetizing the patient and hence developed his theory of animal magnetism, which he believed would transmit chemicals into the patients and provide relief from their symptoms. Mesmer would suggest to them beforehand that as he touched them with his magnetic rod they would become magnetized and eventually would go into a state of “crisis” from which they would emerge cured.

Modern Views of Hypnosis Sigmund Freud: Used hypnotic techniques to uncover repressed and damaging experiences. Although, as a whole Freud did not support the use of hypnosis in a therapeutic setting. These beliefs pushed hypnosis out of interest of medical and psychological fields. Toward the beginning of WWII, R. White unsatisfied with current understanding of hypnosis, brought back interest in researching it that influenced those to follow.

Modern Views of Hypnosis Ernest Hilgard, a pioneer in the scientific study of hypnosis, supported the position that hypnosis is an altered psychological state. His descriptions of hypnosis included increased susceptibility to suggestion, involuntary performance of behavior, improvements in recall, increasing intensity of visual imagination, dissociation, and analgesia. These ideas that hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness, different from both waking and sleep, have never been questioned.

Nicholas Spanos Nicholas Spanos (1942-1994) Ph.D., professor of psychology at Carlten University in Ottawa Canada. Spanos, a social cognitive psychologist, was not convinced by previous views of hypnosis and exposed it to scientific scrutiny. He theorized that the behaviors during hypnosis were actually normal, voluntary abilities of humans, and not an altered state of consciousness.

Spanos 2 Aspects Spanos had two aspects as to why people believe that hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness: 1. The way the suggestion is worded determines whether the behavior is voluntary or involuntary. 2.Hypnosis rituals creates expectations in how the subjects should behave based on how they think they are supposed to behave.

Class Experiment 1. “Hold out your arm.” This is how the hypnotist would start out his session, with a voluntary instruction. 2. “Your arm is getting heavy.” Then the hypnotist would give an involuntary suggestion. Because gravity is already weighing down on one’s arm, the actions are attributed to involuntary behavior. 3. “Your arm is light and rising” Because this action contradicts gravity it is more difficult to be perceived as involuntary In the views of hypnosis the direction of the arm shouldn’t matter; it should all be perceived as involuntary.

Experiment 1: Behavior is Involuntary 2 Groups Group 1 was given a direct instruction to “raise your arm” Group 2 was given a behavior suggestion “your arm is light and rising” They were then asked whether they believed their behavior was involuntary or not. Group 1 believed that their behavior was voluntary Group 2 believed that their behavior was involuntary The behavior suggestion group was more likely to see their behavior as involuntary compared to the group that received the direct instruction.

Experiment 2: Creation of Expectations 2 groups of students were given a lecture as to what to expect during hypnosis. Group 1 was told that during hypnosis some subjects experience spontaneous arm rigidity. Group 2 were told nothing about arm rigidity. During Hypnosis: Group 1 showed spontaneous arm rigidity. Group 2 not one arm became rigid. Conclusion: This experiment shows that expectations influenced behavior during hypnosis.

Higard’s Research It was believed that hypnosis caused people to become insensitive to pain. Hilgard, testing these beliefs, gave subjects hypnotic and waking training in analgesia (pain reduction). Subjects knew they were going to be tested for pain in a waking state first, and then again in the hypnotic state. The subjects reported significantly less cold pressure pain during hypnosis. Conclusion: Hilgard believed that during hypnosis people could dissociate pain from awareness.

Spanos Rejecting Hilgard Spanos believed that these subjects, “have a strong investment in presenting themselves in the experimental setting as good hypnotic subjects.”

Experiment 3: Creation of Expectations Spanos conducted the same experiment as Hilgard concerning pain EXCEPT for one major difference: Group 1. subjects were told that they would use waking analgesia techniques before being tested using hypnotic pain–reduction methods. Group2. subjects were NOT told of the later hypnotic test. Results: Group 1. reported more pain during the waking state than the hypnotic state. Group 2. maintained a constant threshold for pain. Conclusion: The group that expected hypnosis, according to Spanos, left room for improvement.

Key Points Spanos’s goal wasn’t to prove that hypnosis does not exist. He wanted to prove that hypnotic behaviors are the result of highly motivated, goal-directed social behavior, not an altered state of consciousness. Spanos demonstrated that many of the key aspects of hypnosis can be explained in less mysterious and more straightforward ways than being under a hypnotic trance. However, it is still unknown whether or not hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness. It is still used and seen as no more effective than other methods of treatment for smoking, abusing alcohol, improving memory, and losing weight.

Spanos’s Influence on Psychology Spanos challenged views of hypnosis that had been undisputed for nearly 200 years. He was the first person to question the validity of hypnosis as an altered state of consciousness by scientifically conducting experiments. His cognitive behavioral approach to the phenomena of hypnosis has opened the door to further research.

References Bryan, William J. (1963). A History of Hypnosis. Retrieved February 26, 2003, from http://www.infinityinst.com/articles/nartic.html Chaves, John F. & Jones, Bill. (1995) Nicholas Peter Spanos American Psychologist, Vol. 50; 6, pg. 449. Retrieved February 28, 2003 from the EBSCO database. Hock, R. R. (2002). Forty Studies that Changed Psychology: Explorations Into the History of Psychological Research, 4th Edition (pg. 54-62) Ramachandran, V. S. (Ed). (1994). Encyclopedia of Human Behavior (Vol. 2 Cop-I) San Diego: Academic Press Inc. Stanford University, Retrieved February 24, 2003 from http://www.standford.edu/dept/news/report/news/october31/hilgardobit-1031.html