©2008 Allyn & Bacon Seminar #4 Stress Sources of stress Sources of stress Responding to stress Responding to stress Health and illness Health and illness Lifestyle and health Lifestyle and health Goals/Roles of the Hostage Negotiator Goals/Roles of the Hostage Negotiator

Stress Can anyone define Stress? Can anyone define Stress? How do we deal with Stress? How do we deal with Stress? Why would it be important to understand stress as it relates to our careers, especially in the fields of Criminal Justice, Mental Health and other high risk careers. Why would it be important to understand stress as it relates to our careers, especially in the fields of Criminal Justice, Mental Health and other high risk careers. ©2008 Allyn & Bacon

Sources of Stress Stress is the physiological and psychological response to a condition that threatens or challenges a person and requires some sort of adaptation Stress is the physiological and psychological response to a condition that threatens or challenges a person and requires some sort of adaptation Stress is associated with the fight or flight response Stress is associated with the fight or flight response –Response in which the nervous system and endocrine glands prepare the body to fight or flee Stressors Stressors –Stimuli or events that can produce physical or emotional stress

©2008 Allyn & Bacon What was the Social Readjustment Rating Scale designed to reveal? Developed by Holmes and Rahe to measure stress Developed by Holmes and Rahe to measure stress Life events that produce the greatest life changes are considered the most stressful Life events that produce the greatest life changes are considered the most stressful –Whether the changes are positive or negative Scale assigns point values to 43 life events Scale assigns point values to 43 life events –Death of a spouse: 100 –Getting fired at work: 47 –Beginning or ending school: 26 –Vacation: 13

©2008 Allyn & Bacon What was the Social Readjustment Rating Scale designed to reveal? SRRS scores are correlated with a variety of health indicators SRRS scores are correlated with a variety of health indicators –Scores over % chance of major health problems within two years 80% chance of major health problems within two years –Scores of % chance of major health problems within two years 50% chance of major health problems within two years Main criticism of SRRS Main criticism of SRRS –It assigns point values to life events without taking into account how an individual perceives or copes with each stressor

©2008 Allyn & Bacon How do choice-related conflicts and lack of control contribute to stress? Making choices can be stressful Making choices can be stressful Three choice-related conflicts : Three choice-related conflicts : –Approach-approach conflict Having to choose between equally desirable alternatives Having to choose between equally desirable alternatives –Avoidance-avoidance conflict Having to choose between undesirable alternatives Having to choose between undesirable alternatives –Approach-avoidance conflict Conflict arising when the same choice has desirable and undesirable features Conflict arising when the same choice has desirable and undesirable features

©2008 Allyn & Bacon How do choice-related conflicts and lack of control contribute to stress? People feel less stress when a stressor is predictable than when it is unpredictable People feel less stress when a stressor is predictable than when it is unpredictable People also feel less stress when they have a sense of control over a situation People also feel less stress when they have a sense of control over a situation –Langer & Rodin (1976): Nursing home residents are healthier and happier when they feel they have control over some aspects of their lives –Glass & Singer (1972): Loud noises are less stressful when participants can terminate the noise, even if they don’t choose to do so

©2008 Allyn & Bacon For people to function effectively and find satisfaction on the job, what nine variables should fall within their comfort zone? Job stress can have a variety of consequences, including Job stress can have a variety of consequences, including –Reduced effectiveness on the job, absenteeism, accidents, lower morale, and substance abuse

©2008 Allyn & Bacon For people to function effectively and find satisfaction on the job, what nine variables should fall within their comfort zone? According to Albrecht (1979), effective functioning and job satisfaction depend on nine variables being within one’s comfort zone According to Albrecht (1979), effective functioning and job satisfaction depend on nine variables being within one’s comfort zone –Workload –Clarity of job description and evaluation criteria –Physical variables –Job status –Accountability –Task variety –Human contact –Physical challenge –Mental challenge

©2008 Allyn & Bacon How do people typically react to catastrophic events? Most people cope well with catastrophic events Most people cope well with catastrophic events But some develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) But some develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) –A prolonged, severe stress reaction, often characterized by flashbacks or nightmares –PTSD is associated with increased risk of suicide, depression, and alcohol abuse

©2008 Allyn & Bacon Responding to Stress Psychologists have different views of the ways in which people respond to stressful experiences. Each approach can help us gain insight into our own experiences to deal more effectively with stress. Psychologists have different views of the ways in which people respond to stressful experiences. Each approach can help us gain insight into our own experiences to deal more effectively with stress.

©2008 Allyn & Bacon What are the roles of primary and secondary appraisals when a person is confronted with a potentially stressful event? In Richard Lazarus’ Cognitive Theory of Stress (1966), he proposed that stress results from a person’s perception of stressors, and not from the stressors themselves In Richard Lazarus’ Cognitive Theory of Stress (1966), he proposed that stress results from a person’s perception of stressors, and not from the stressors themselves According to the theory, perception of stress involves primary and secondary appraisals of the situation According to the theory, perception of stress involves primary and secondary appraisals of the situation

©2008 Allyn & Bacon What are the roles of primary and secondary appraisals when a person is confronted with a potentially stressful event? Primary appraisal Primary appraisal –Cognitive evaluation of a potentially stressful situation to determine if its effect is positive, negative, or irrelevant Secondary appraisal Secondary appraisal –Cognitive evaluation of available resources and options for dealing with a stressful situation –Level of perceived stress is largely based on whether one’s resources are perceived as adequate for dealing with the stressor

©2008 Allyn & Bacon What is the difference between problem-focused and emotion - focused coping? Problem-focused coping Problem-focused coping –A direct response aimed at reducing, modifying, or eliminating a source of stress Emotion-focused coping Emotion-focused coping –A response involving reappraisal of a stressor to reduce its emotional impact A combination of these strategies is probably the best stress-management technique A combination of these strategies is probably the best stress-management technique –e.g., a heart-disease patient making lifestyle changes such as diet and exercise (problem- focused) and maintaining an optimistic outlook to deal with anxiety (emotion-focused)

©2008 Allyn & Bacon Health and Illness Wellness is a term associated with a new approach to thinking about health, encompassing a growing emphasis on lifestyle, preventive care, and the need to maintain wellness rather than thinking of health matters only when the body is sick. Wellness is a term associated with a new approach to thinking about health, encompassing a growing emphasis on lifestyle, preventive care, and the need to maintain wellness rather than thinking of health matters only when the body is sick.

©2008 Allyn & Bacon How do the biomedical and biopsychosocial models differ in their approaches to health and illness? Biomedical model Biomedical model –A perspective that explains illness solely in terms of biological factors –The predominant view in medicine for many decades Biopsychosocial model Biopsychosocial model –A perspective that views health and illness as determined by a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors –Growing acceptance of this model has given rise to the field of health psychology

©2008 Allyn & Bacon What are the Type A, Type B, and Type D behavior patterns? Type A behavior pattern Type A behavior pattern –Time urgency, impatience, competitiveness, hostility, and anger –Associated with increased risk for coronary heart disease Type B behavior pattern Type B behavior pattern –Relaxed, easygoing approach to life, without time urgency, competitiveness, and hostility –Associated with lower risk of coronary heart disease Type D behavior pattern Type D behavior pattern –Emotional distress combined with tendency to suppress negative emotions –Associated with increased risk of coronary heart disease

©2008 Allyn & Bacon How do psychological factors influence cancer patients’ quality of life? Research has identified several psychological factors that can improve quality of life and reduce distress in cancer patients Research has identified several psychological factors that can improve quality of life and reduce distress in cancer patients –Maintaining an optimistic outlook –Accepting the reality of the situation –Keeping a sense of humor –Social support Coping strategies that increase distress include Coping strategies that increase distress include –Denial –Social withdrawal

©2008 Allyn & Bacon What are the effects of stress on the immune system? Stress caused by school exams, poor marital relationships, sleep deprivation, and depression is correlated with increased symptoms of many infectious diseases Stress caused by school exams, poor marital relationships, sleep deprivation, and depression is correlated with increased symptoms of many infectious diseases –Colds –Flu –Mononucleosis –Oral and genital herpes

©2008 Allyn & Bacon What personal and social factors are associated with health and resistance to stress? Religious faith Religious faith –Religious involvement is associated with lower rates of cancer, heart disease, and stroke Social Support Social Support –Tangible and/or emotional support provided by family members, friends, and others –People with high levels of social support Are less likely to catch colds Are less likely to catch colds Have lower levels of depression when suffering from chronic illnesses Have lower levels of depression when suffering from chronic illnesses Recover faster from illness Recover faster from illness Have higher probability of surviving a heart attack Have higher probability of surviving a heart attack

©2008 Allyn & Bacon How do males and females differ with regard to health? Research has revealed several differences between men and women regarding health Research has revealed several differences between men and women regarding health –Men are more likely to die from most diseases, but women are generally less healthy –Women are more likely than men to die following heart surgery –When men and women have the same diseases, men are often more seriously ill Research has not yet identified the causes of these differences Research has not yet identified the causes of these differences

©2008 Allyn & Bacon How does racial patterning contribute to health differences across groups? Some racial and ethnic groups have higher incidence of some chronic conditions than do other groups Some racial and ethnic groups have higher incidence of some chronic conditions than do other groups –e.g., African Americans have higher rates of diabetes, arthritis, and high blood pressure than White Americans, and are more likely to die from cancer and heart disease These differences cannot be explained by socioeconomic factors alone These differences cannot be explained by socioeconomic factors alone These differences may result from racial patterning These differences may result from racial patterning –The tendency of groups of people to maintain shared behavior patterns, such as diet

©2008 Allyn & Bacon Lifestyle and Health Researchers have found that people are more likely to adopt healthy behaviors if they believe behavioral change will make them look better or appear more youthful than if they simply receive information about the health benefits of the suggested change. Researchers have found that people are more likely to adopt healthy behaviors if they believe behavioral change will make them look better or appear more youthful than if they simply receive information about the health benefits of the suggested change. Still, there are some health-threatening behaviors that carry such grave risks that everyone ought to take them seriously. Still, there are some health-threatening behaviors that carry such grave risks that everyone ought to take them seriously.

©2008 Allyn & Bacon Why is smoking the most dangerous health -threatening behavior? Smoking is the #1 cause of preventable diseases and deaths in the USA Smoking is the #1 cause of preventable diseases and deaths in the USA –Directly related to over 400,000 deaths each year Smoking is related to Smoking is related to –Heart disease, lung cancer, chronic bronchitis –Low birth weight and retarded fetal development in babies born of smoking mothers Passive smoking is related to Passive smoking is related to –Increased risk of heart attack

©2008 Allyn & Bacon What are some health risks of alcohol abuse? Excessive alcohol consumption can damage virtually every organ in the body, including the liver, stomach, heart, and brain Excessive alcohol consumption can damage virtually every organ in the body, including the liver, stomach, heart, and brain –CT scans show brain shrinkage in alcoholics Compared to nonalcoholics, alcoholics Compared to nonalcoholics, alcoholics –Are three times more likely to die in car accidents –Are twice as likely to die of cancer Recent studies suggest that brain-imaging techniques may someday be able to identify individuals who have a genetic predisposition for alcoholism Recent studies suggest that brain-imaging techniques may someday be able to identify individuals who have a genetic predisposition for alcoholism

©2008 Allyn & Bacon What are some benefits of a healthy diet and exercise? Obesity increases the risk of several chronic conditions Obesity increases the risk of several chronic conditions –including heart disease, high blood pressure, and type 2 diabetes People who regularly consume fast foods are at risk for obesity and nutritional deficiencies People who regularly consume fast foods are at risk for obesity and nutritional deficiencies Regular aerobic exercise has numerous health benefits Regular aerobic exercise has numerous health benefits –including decreased risk of heart attack, stronger and denser bones, enhanced immune system functioning, increased energy, weight loss or maintenance, resistance to stress

©2008 Allyn & Bacon What are the benefits and risks associated with alternative medicine? Alternative medicine is any treatment or therapy that has not been scientifically demonstrated to be effective Alternative medicine is any treatment or therapy that has not been scientifically demonstrated to be effective Some alternative treatments may be effective at preventing and treating illness Some alternative treatments may be effective at preventing and treating illness But they also have risks But they also have risks –Alternative treatments may interfere with treatments prescribed by physicians –Faith in alternative treatments may cause some people to delay seeking conventional treatment

Hostage Incident “…a perpetrator holds one or more persons against their will in a location known to police” (Hatcher, Mohandie, Turner & Gelles, 1988, p. 455) ©2008 Allyn & Bacon

Goals What are the goals of Hostage Negotiation? What are the goals of Hostage Negotiation? ©2008 Allyn & Bacon

Goals Using words to Buy Time Decrease Emotional State of Hostage Taker Increase Rationality of Hostage Taker Safe Release of Hostages Nonviolent Arrest of Hostage Taker

Three Roles of Negotiation Negotiate Negotiate Keep a track of what’s going on Keep a track of what’s going on Make decisions about the negotiation Make decisions about the negotiation ©2008 Allyn & Bacon

Have a Great Weekend! No seminar in Week#5 No seminar in Week#5 ©2008 Allyn & Bacon