Ministry of Education and Science of Russian Federation Don State Technical University (DSTU) Specialty: Linguistics Discipline: Lexicology Course work on theme: « Nature of semantic change. Types of associative relationships. Metaphor and Metonymy.» Made by: Пригарина М. К. Group: МБЛ-31 Supervisor: Муругова Е. В. Rostov-on-Don 2012
The object - metaphor and metonymy, collected on the basis of the newspaper style analysis. The subject - the investigation of the semantic change and its nature, based on the transferences of meanings, metaphor and metonymy in particular, and the illustration of frequency of usage of metaphor and metonymy in newspaper style.
The aim - to present the nature of semantic changes based on the transferences of meanings, metaphor and metonymy, and to illustrate the frequency of usage of metaphor and metonymy in newspaper style.
Tasks: 1. to define the nature of semantic changes; 2. to classify the courses of semantic changes; 3. to give the definition of the word «metaphor»; 4. to give the definition of the word «metonymy»; 5. to study the frequency of usage of metaphor and metonymy in newspapers; 6. to analyze the frequency of usage of metaphor and metonymy in newspapers.
I.R. Galperin in his book «Stylistics» points out that the term 'metaphor' means transference of some quality from one object to another (I.R. Galperin, 1981). In «A course in modern english lexicology» similarity of meanings or metaphor is described as a semantic process of associating two referents, one of which in some way resembles the other (R. S. Ginzburg, S. S. Khidekel, G. Y. Knyazeva, A. A. Sankin, 1979). In the book «Metaphors We Live By» metaphor is viewed as characteristic of language alone, a matter of words rather than thought or action, it is a matter of extraordinary rather than ordinary language (George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, 2003).
I.R. Galperin in his book «Stylistics» points out that metonymy is based on a different type of relation between the dictionary and contextual meanings, a relation based not on identification, but on some kind of association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represent (I.R. Galperin, 1981). In «A course in modern english lexicology» metonymy is described as the semantic process of associating two referents one of which makes part of the other or is closely connected with it (R. S. Ginzburg, S. S. Khidekel, G. Y. Knyazeva, A. A. Sankin, 1979). In the book «Metaphors We Live By» metonymy is defined as using one entity to refer to another that is related to it (George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, 2003).
Two main groups of causes of semantic changes Linguistic (factors acting within the language system). Historical or extra- linguistic (changes in economic and social structure, way of life and other spheres of human activities).
Herman Paul`s classification of metaphor according to different types of similarity: 1) similarity of shape (head (of a cabbage), bottle neck, teeth)); 2) similarity of position (foot ( of a page, of a mountain), head ( of a procession)); 3) similarity of function, behavior (a whip (an official in the British Parliament whose duty is to see that members were present at the voting)); 4) similarity of color (orange, hazel, chestnut etc.). The scholar notes that in some cases we have a complex similarity (the leg of a table has a similarity to human leg in its shape, position and function).
Dead metaphors: - hide behind the argument; - raise complex issues; - her name was dragged through the mud. Standard metaphor: - government bodies; - Shadow home secretary. Metaphors based on analogy between duration of time and space: - a long way to go; - it is taking a long time; - it goes part of the way to explaining. Examples of metaphor
Phrasal metaphors: - hand towel of dignity; - she is incapable of living in the shadow of a partner. Anthropomorphic metaphors: - head of Africa; - three female heads of state; - in the public eye; - the fictional head of MI6; - at the head. Metaphors based on similarity of function: - on one hand; - wing mirrors.
Metonymic process in which a part of a longer expression is used to stand for the whole expression: - Labour is ahead of the Tories; - Labour would vote against the cuts in the Commons. “Whole for part” metonymy: - the "rest of the world" (not world but countries); - the party plans to extend it. Type of metonymy when the material of which an object is made may become the name of the object: - a glass of wine. Other cases of metonymy: - Report warns; - The research added up. Examples of metonymy
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