How will melting of ice affect volcanic hazards in the twenty-first century? by Hugh Tuffen Philosophical Transactions A Volume 368(1919): May 28, 2010 ©2010 by The Royal Society

(a) Explosive phreatomagmatic activity at Grímsvötn, Iceland, on 2 November Hugh Tuffen Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 2010;368: ©2010 by The Royal Society

(a) Iliamna Volcano, Alaska, showing the path of an ice–rock avalanche that originated from a geothermally active zone high in the summit region adapted from Huggel (2009), photograph by R. Wessels. Hugh Tuffen Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 2010;368: ©2010 by The Royal Society

Dramatic recent loss of snow and ice from the summit of Kilimanjaro. Hugh Tuffen Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 2010;368: ©2010 by The Royal Society

(a) Disruption of ice at the site of the 1998 Grímsvötn eruption, Vatnajökull, Iceland. Hugh Tuffen Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 2010;368: ©2010 by The Royal Society

Modelled acceleration in melting of the Icelandic mantle during the last deglaciation (modified from Maclennan et al. 2002). Hugh Tuffen Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 2010;368: ©2010 by The Royal Society

(a) The ratio of post-glacial (18–7 ka) to glacial (40–20 ka) activity at volcanoes worldwide plotted against a proxy for the amount of ice unloading from ice mass balance models (Huybers & Langmuir 2009). Hugh Tuffen Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 2010;368: ©2010 by The Royal Society

Some approximate rates and amounts of ice thinning since the Little Ice Age and during deglaciation, together with projections for the twenty-first century using current rates of ice melting. Hugh Tuffen Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 2010;368: ©2010 by The Royal Society

Results of modelling of rhyolitic eruptions under ice from a 1.5 km long fissure. Hugh Tuffen Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 2010;368: ©2010 by The Royal Society