A810Z- Community Participation in Sub-Saharan Africa Shirley Burchfield 04/03/08

One definition of participation Participation is all activities (local and national) that are intended to influence public decision-making and allocation of resources (Charzan, 1982 in Patterson).

Continuum of Participation Involvement Participation Partnership

Ladder of Citizen Participation 8. Citizen control 7. Delegated power Degrees of citizen power 6. Partnership 5. Placation 4. Consultation Degrees of tokenism 3. Informing 2. Therapy Non-participation 1. Manipulation Arnstein (1969) in Bray (2001)

3 Types of Communities Geographic communities Ethnic, linguistic, and religious Communities of “limited liability” (Watt 2001)

1.Community served by a school within an administrative boundary may not coincide with community boundary. 1.Communities do not make decisions about time and allocation of resources in the same way as individuals. 2.Communities per se do not usually contribute to education, except in aggregate sense. 3.Most people belong to several communities with competing goals and allegiances.

Aristotle (The Politics) about 350 BC Defines citizenship as and individual who is responsible to the community and carries out a duty to work toward the common good of society. (Aristotle,1982, The Politics, Translated by T.A. Sinclair, NY: Penguin in Patterson 1999).

2 Perspectives on Citizenship 1.Liberal view of citizenship – focus is on rights of the individual in common society. 2.Communal view of citizenship – focus on individual responsibility to society.

Aristotle (The Politics) about 350 BC For that which is common to the greatest number has the least care bestowed upon it. Everyone thinks chiefly of his own, hardly at all of the common interest; and only when he is himself concerned as an individual. For besides other considerations, everybody is more inclined to neglect something which he expects others to fulfill.

Patterson, 1999 Citizenship reflects expectations about rights and responsibilities that a community and its citizens have for one another. Because participation reflects the ways individuals view their rights and responsibilities in a society, it is closely linked to citizenship (p. 4.).

Conditions under which expectations can change: 1.When a community does not incorporate inclusive decision-making institutions that value the involvement of all participants, individuals may question their citizenship rights and leave the community. 2.When a community cannot live up to the material expectations that members have for it, people may question why they must responsibly give time, energy, and resources to the community.

3 Case Studies 1.The Ndoulo Community Forage and Forage Committee 2.The Ndoulo GPF 3.Mouride Religious Adherents in Senegal (and Patar)

Forms of Community Support Monetary Non Monetary

Conclusion (Patterson) When people feel that their right to participate in an inclusive decision-making process has been undermined, they may feel few obligations to the community and not participate (p. 20).

School Costs Voluntary Compulsary Hidden costs

Calculating School Costs Grant funds Direct costs Opportunity costs Comparable units of analysis

Pricing Shadow pricing Phantom pricing

Costs of Community Schools School startup costs School operation costs School support and supervision costs APE development, operations, and supervision costs Non-governmental organization development costs PVO management and operation costs

Class Project/Proposal Each project should describe the following: 1.Name and responsibilities of team members 2.Country/village context (problem to be solved) 3.Rational for the program 4.How were needs identified? 5.Program design 6.Timeframe 7.Monitoring and evaluation plan 8.How will activities be sustained after the funding concludes?

Project Design What will be the central elements of the program (program plan?) How does this program address key needs identified? Who was involved in the program planning and design (may be hypothetical)? Who will administer it (Management plan)? Who will be the partners? What will be the role of each partner?

Design continued Who will fund the program? What contributions will be made by the community? What is the projected budget?

Characteristics of a Good Proposal Identifies the central problems to be addressed. Demonstrates and understanding of the cultural context, including barriers to implementation and how they will be addressed. Demonstrates the capability to carry out the proposal activities. Specifies objectives that are measurable and achievable.

A Good Proposal… Lays out how objectives will be achieved: –Who? Implementing organizations/partners –What? Proposal design –When? Timeline –Where? Geographic area of coverage –How? Strategy; budget

Characteristics of a Good Proposal Identifies the central problems to be addressed. Demonstrates and understanding of the cultural context, including barriers to implementation and how they will be addressed. Demonstrates the capability to carry out the proposal activities. Specifies objectives that are measurable and achievable.

Specifies how objectives will be measured. –How will progress be monitored? –What will be indicators of success and how will they be measured? Specifies how activities will be sustained after funding concludes.