Slavery and Early Rome 1. Some general remarks and terms 2. 2.

Rome a true slave society Rome a ‘true’ slave society only from 3rd century BCE to reign of emperor Diocletian ( ) CE Rome a ‘true’ slave society only from 3rd century BCE to reign of emperor Diocletian ( ) CE Only Roman Italy qualifies NOT all of the Roman empire. Only Roman Italy qualifies NOT all of the Roman empire.

Roman Empire c. 117 CE

Roman Italy and its people City of Rome –on Italian peninsula, a large urban center City of Rome –on Italian peninsula, a large urban center Urban Roman Society: sophisticated urban elite; middle-class merchants, craftsmen, etc., large numbers of slaves and ex-slaves; masses of the landless and poor; Urban Roman Society: sophisticated urban elite; middle-class merchants, craftsmen, etc., large numbers of slaves and ex-slaves; masses of the landless and poor; citizens; Latins, foreigners (peregrini); citizens; Latins, foreigners (peregrini); Slaves: Urban slaves (familia urbana) Romans divided slaves into two general groups - agricultural slaves (familia rustica) Slaves: Urban slaves (familia urbana) Romans divided slaves into two general groups - agricultural slaves (familia rustica) Roman Italy – landed aristocracy, peasants; landless rural workers; Roman Italy – landed aristocracy, peasants; landless rural workers;

Social Organization Highly hierarchical: Highly hierarchical: legal status legal status Roman citizen Roman citizen Latin (limited citizenship) Latin (limited citizenship) Free foreigner (peregrinus/peregrina/) Free foreigner (peregrinus/peregrina/) Freed (libertus/liberta – liberti/libertae) Freed (libertus/liberta – liberti/libertae) Slave (servus/serva/servi) Slave (servus/serva/servi)

Census Classes, and voting distribution in the The Comitia Centuriata:The Centuriate Assembly – based on wealth Free male citizen population divided into 193 centuries on the basis of wealth Free male citizen population divided into 193 centuries on the basis of wealth Equites (knights) = 18 Centuries = 18 votes (included senatorial elite) Equites (knights) = 18 Centuries = 18 votes (included senatorial elite) ,000 asses + = 82 Centuries = 82 votes ,000 asses + = 82 Centuries = 82 votes 2. 75, ,000 asses = 20 Centuries = 20 votes 2. 75, ,000 asses = 20 Centuries = 20 votes 3. 50,000-75,000 asses = 20 Centuries = 20 votes 3. 50,000-75,000 asses = 20 Centuries = 20 votes 4. 25,000-50,000 asses = 20 Centuries = 20 votes 4. 25,000-50,000 asses = 20 Centuries = 20 votes 5. 11,000-25,000 asses = 32 Centuries = 32 votes 5. 11,000-25,000 asses = 32 Centuries = 32 votes Under 11,000 asses, the proletarii = 1 Century = 1 vote Under 11,000 asses, the proletarii = 1 Century = 1 vote Those below classis 5 = proletarii – did not qualify for military service – could not supply own armor. Those below classis 5 = proletarii – did not qualify for military service – could not supply own armor.

Social Structure The Roman elite: 1 st census class = senatorial order and equestrians The Roman elite: 1 st census class = senatorial order and equestrians Status based on birth and wealth; wealth based on land Status based on birth and wealth; wealth based on land Senatorial order – participated in political life (pursued public career – cursus honorum) Senatorial order – participated in political life (pursued public career – cursus honorum) Equestrian order – same census class – but did not participate in political life Equestrian order – same census class – but did not participate in political life Provided financial backing for senators; involved in large-scale financial ventures Provided financial backing for senators; involved in large-scale financial ventures

Roman lower classes Included everyone below the senatorial and equestrian classes Included everyone below the senatorial and equestrian classes Some freedmen (liberti) although at times wealthier than equestrian classes – low birth excluded them; if wealth was not based on land was considered dishonorable Some freedmen (liberti) although at times wealthier than equestrian classes – low birth excluded them; if wealth was not based on land was considered dishonorable Augustan legislation: prohibited senators to marry the daughter of a freedman Augustan legislation: prohibited senators to marry the daughter of a freedman Sons of freedmen able to join equestrian ranks – if they met property requirements, but stigma remained for some generations Sons of freedmen able to join equestrian ranks – if they met property requirements, but stigma remained for some generations

The Patron-Client System Roman social structure based on personal relationships Roman social structure based on personal relationships Patron-client system central to social and political life in Republican Rome. Unequal relationship Patron-client system central to social and political life in Republican Rome. Unequal relationship Patron (patronus) = Wealthy member of the elite who provided a client (of lower status) with loans, legal help, other opportunities and services. Patron (patronus) = Wealthy member of the elite who provided a client (of lower status) with loans, legal help, other opportunities and services. A manumitted slave became freedman and client of his former master (dominus) A manumitted slave became freedman and client of his former master (dominus) Client (cliens) = Supported his patron by voting for him, supporting his legislative initiatives, providing other services. Client (cliens) = Supported his patron by voting for him, supporting his legislative initiatives, providing other services. Patron-Client relationship inheritable across generations. Patron-Client relationship inheritable across generations. Tendency toward the formation of cliques along gens lines. Tendency toward the formation of cliques along gens lines. Relationship vertical, i.e. senatorial/equestrian patron – had clients from lower orders, or ex-slave, Relationship vertical, i.e. senatorial/equestrian patron – had clients from lower orders, or ex-slave, clients themselves had their own clients of lower status, and so on - clients themselves had their own clients of lower status, and so on -

Regulations regarding Patron-Client Relationship Ascribed to Romulus: Ascribed to Romulus: “the regulations which he then instituted concerning patronage and which long continued in use among the Romans were as follows. It was the duty of the patricians to explain to their clients the laws, of which they were ignorant; to take the same care for them when absent as present, doing everything for them that fathers do for their sons with regard to money and to the contracts that related to money; to bring suit on behalf of their clients when they were wronged in connection with contracts and to defend them against any who brought charges against them…. “the regulations which he then instituted concerning patronage and which long continued in use among the Romans were as follows. It was the duty of the patricians to explain to their clients the laws, of which they were ignorant; to take the same care for them when absent as present, doing everything for them that fathers do for their sons with regard to money and to the contracts that related to money; to bring suit on behalf of their clients when they were wronged in connection with contracts and to defend them against any who brought charges against them….

continued It was the duty of the clients to assist their patrons in providing dowries for their daughters upon marriage if the fathers had not sufficient means; to pay their ransom to the enemy if any of them or of their children were taken prisoner; to discharge out of their own purses their patron’s losses in private suites and the pecuniary fines which they were condemned to pay to the state, making these contributions to them not as loans but as thank-offerings; and to share with their patrons the costs incurred in their magistracies and dignities and other public expenditure, in the same manner as if they were their relations. (FIRA I, 3-18) It was the duty of the clients to assist their patrons in providing dowries for their daughters upon marriage if the fathers had not sufficient means; to pay their ransom to the enemy if any of them or of their children were taken prisoner; to discharge out of their own purses their patron’s losses in private suites and the pecuniary fines which they were condemned to pay to the state, making these contributions to them not as loans but as thank-offerings; and to share with their patrons the costs incurred in their magistracies and dignities and other public expenditure, in the same manner as if they were their relations. (FIRA I, 3-18)

The Sacred Bond of Patron and Client going both ways The Sacred Bond of Patron and Client going both ways “If a patron shall have defrauded his client, he must be solemnly forfeited” The XII Tables 450 BCEe “If a patron shall have defrauded his client, he must be solemnly forfeited” The XII Tables 450 BCEe Forfeited (Latin = sacer) a forfeited man was outside the law and eligible for death Forfeited (Latin = sacer) a forfeited man was outside the law and eligible for death Later this often meant exile Later this often meant exile

During the period of Severus ( CE) The prefect of the city has jurisdiction over all offenses whatsoever ….He also shall hear the complaints of needy patrons concerning their freedmen, especially if they declare that they are ill and wish to be supported by their freedmen..(Justinian, Digest I. xii., xv.3 The prefect of the city has jurisdiction over all offenses whatsoever ….He also shall hear the complaints of needy patrons concerning their freedmen, especially if they declare that they are ill and wish to be supported by their freedmen..(Justinian, Digest I. xii., xv.3

Republican Political Organization Mixed Constitution: monarchic, oligarchic, and democratic elements (2 consuls, senate, assemblies) Mixed Constitution: monarchic, oligarchic, and democratic elements (2 consuls, senate, assemblies) Rome governed by: 1. Elected magistrates. 2. Senate. 3. People. Rome governed by: 1. Elected magistrates. 2. Senate. 3. People. Magistrates elected for 1 year term. Magistrates elected for 1 year term. All magistracies are collegial, i.e. 2 consuls. All magistracies are collegial, i.e. 2 consuls. Political life, religious life, military life, and social life are inseparable. Political life, religious life, military life, and social life are inseparable. Intensely competitive and personal; highest office the consulship; stiff competition for office Intensely competitive and personal; highest office the consulship; stiff competition for office

The role of Slaves Important as labour force in the production of goods: in Roman Italy slaves major producers of income for elite: in agriculture, manufacture; trade, as business agents, managers; Important as labour force in the production of goods: in Roman Italy slaves major producers of income for elite: in agriculture, manufacture; trade, as business agents, managers; In household, the more specialized slaves were the wealthier were their owners In household, the more specialized slaves were the wealthier were their owners MORE important as status symbols MORE important as status symbols Hierarchical social order; status had to be displayed in public Hierarchical social order; status had to be displayed in public Slaves important in displaying wealth and prominence of Romans; important for political competition Slaves important in displaying wealth and prominence of Romans; important for political competition See Wiedemann # 81 (Apuleius, The Golden Ass) small number of slaves – displays poverty See Wiedemann # 81 (Apuleius, The Golden Ass) small number of slaves – displays poverty

Slave Ownership Everyone who could afford to would have at least 1 slave; women also slave-owners Everyone who could afford to would have at least 1 slave; women also slave-owners Melania the Younger (5 th century A.D.) had 8000 slaves which she manumitted when whe became Christian ascetic Melania the Younger (5 th century A.D.) had 8000 slaves which she manumitted when whe became Christian ascetic Pudentilla, wife of Apuleius, had several properties in the eastern Mediterrenean - had about 600 slaves Pudentilla, wife of Apuleius, had several properties in the eastern Mediterrenean - had about 600 slaves Livia, Augustus’ wife, had a huge number of highly specialized slaves: for example, had 6 cubicularii (bedchamber slaves) in her bedroom alone Livia, Augustus’ wife, had a huge number of highly specialized slaves: for example, had 6 cubicularii (bedchamber slaves) in her bedroom alone Ummidia Quadratilla, grandmother of Pliny’s friend had her own mime troupe (Pliny Epistulae 7.24) Ummidia Quadratilla, grandmother of Pliny’s friend had her own mime troupe (Pliny Epistulae 7.24) Petronius fictitious character Trimalchio: Wiedemann # 82 Petronius fictitious character Trimalchio: Wiedemann # 82 In late Republic the accellerated political competition drove slave-ownership to new levels: Wiedmann # 83 In late Republic the accellerated political competition drove slave-ownership to new levels: Wiedmann # 83

The nature of the Roman Economy – Wealth based on agricultural land Wealth based on agricultural land Producing surplus important – to provide security for years of poor yields, to have food for rural workers on the estates, to supply their country estates and urban villas and households and support their lifestyle - to provide them with otium (leisure) Producing surplus important – to provide security for years of poor yields, to have food for rural workers on the estates, to supply their country estates and urban villas and households and support their lifestyle - to provide them with otium (leisure) But did not aim merely at greatest possible profit But did not aim merely at greatest possible profit Aim was to provide food mostly for household and local needs, NOT as today produce crops for sale on competitive world markets with profits reinvested to increase yields and profit margin even more Aim was to provide food mostly for household and local needs, NOT as today produce crops for sale on competitive world markets with profits reinvested to increase yields and profit margin even more

Roman Slavery - a Social Institution Many slaves not directly involved in generating income Many slaves not directly involved in generating income Domestic slaves usually consumed wealth not produced it Domestic slaves usually consumed wealth not produced it Domestics provided owners with personal services: cooks, bedroom attendants, masseurs, purse carriers (pedisequa/us); nurses for children, etc., Domestics provided owners with personal services: cooks, bedroom attendants, masseurs, purse carriers (pedisequa/us); nurses for children, etc., Slaves used for display: ostentatious retinues Slaves used for display: ostentatious retinues Note: Roman Slavery primarily a Social Institution Note: Roman Slavery primarily a Social Institution

Some Important LatinTerms domus = Roman household including parents, children, slaves, other dependents as well as property, wealth and reputation of that family domus = Roman household including parents, children, slaves, other dependents as well as property, wealth and reputation of that family pater = father pater = father mater = mother mater = mother paterfamilias = (father of the family), oldest male with authority over everyone paterfamilias = (father of the family), oldest male with authority over everyone familia = usually the dependants, primarily slaves familia = usually the dependants, primarily slaves Dominus/a = master/mistress - position of owner in relationship to his/her slaves Dominus/a = master/mistress - position of owner in relationship to his/her slaves

filius, filia = son, daughter filius, filia = son, daughter servus, serva = male/female slave servus, serva = male/female slave libertus, liberta = freedman/freedwoman libertus, liberta = freedman/freedwoman patronus, patrona = patron, former owner of a freed slave, (can also mean patron of a cliens (client) = socially inferior follower patronus, patrona = patron, former owner of a freed slave, (can also mean patron of a cliens (client) = socially inferior follower

Rome of the XII Tables The Early Roman Community And Slavery

Rome of the XII Tables XII tables, earliest Roman law code; codified ca. 450 BCE XII tables, earliest Roman law code; codified ca. 450 BCE Laws are codified customs practiced for long period of time before being codified Laws are codified customs practiced for long period of time before being codified Customs codified once community had become too large and complex; problems could not longer be solved by referring to past practices Customs codified once community had become too large and complex; problems could not longer be solved by referring to past practices Laws reflect agricultural society Laws reflect agricultural society

Table 5.8. If a Roman citizen freedman dies intestate without a direct heir, to his patron shall fall the inheritance... from said household... into said household.. If a Roman citizen freedman dies intestate without a direct heir, to his patron shall fall the inheritance... from said household... into said household.

Table VIII.3... If a person breaks a bone of a freeman with hand or by club, he shall undergo a penalty of 300 asses ; or of 150 asses, if of a slave.... If a person breaks a bone of a freeman with hand or by club, he shall undergo a penalty of 300 asses ; or of 150 asses, if of a slave.

Table – In the case of all other... thieves caught in the act freemen shall be scourged and shall be adjudged as bondsmen to the person against whom the theft has been committed provided that they have done this by daylight and have not defended themselves with a weapon ; slaves caught in the act of theft... shall be whipped with scourges and shall be thrown from the rock ; but children below the age of puberty shall be scourged at the praetor's decision and the damage done by them shall be repaired. 14.– In the case of all other... thieves caught in the act freemen shall be scourged and shall be adjudged as bondsmen to the person against whom the theft has been committed provided that they have done this by daylight and have not defended themselves with a weapon ; slaves caught in the act of theft... shall be whipped with scourges and shall be thrown from the rock ; but children below the age of puberty shall be scourged at the praetor's decision and the damage done by them shall be repaired.

Table 10.6a (sacred law) 6a.–... Anointing by slaves is abolished and every kind of drinking bout... there shall be no costly sprinkling, no long garlands, no incense boxes... 6a.–... Anointing by slaves is abolished and every kind of drinking bout... there shall be no costly sprinkling, no long garlands, no incense boxes...

Table XII 2a.– If a slave commits a theft or does damage to property.... 2b.– From delinquency of children of the household and of slaves... actions for damages shall be appointed, that the father or the master may be permitted either to undergo assessment of the claim or to deliver the delinquent for punishment... 2a.– If a slave commits a theft or does damage to property.... 2b.– From delinquency of children of the household and of slaves... actions for damages shall be appointed, that the father or the master may be permitted either to undergo assessment of the claim or to deliver the delinquent for punishment...

The XII Tables The earliest Roman Law code clearly reflects that slaves were an integral part of the early Roman community: integrated into social structure, inheritance laws, criminal law, religious institutions. The earliest Roman Law code clearly reflects that slaves were an integral part of the early Roman community: integrated into social structure, inheritance laws, criminal law, religious institutions. Reflects long-standing practices Reflects long-standing practices

Slavery in the Later Roman Empire Durability of Slavery

Siege of Amida, 369 CE; war captives “among them were many feeble old men and aged women. When their strength gave out for various reasons under the hardships of he long march and they lost any desire to live, their calves or hams were severed and they were left behind.” ( Ammianus Marcellinus, History ) “among them were many feeble old men and aged women. When their strength gave out for various reasons under the hardships of he long march and they lost any desire to live, their calves or hams were severed and they were left behind.” ( Ammianus Marcellinus, History )

Slavery in the 6 th century AD Publication of Justinian Digest in 533 CE Publication of Justinian Digest in 533 CE Massive collection of legal material but only relevant for that time was included Massive collection of legal material but only relevant for that time was included Enormous amount of material about slaves reflects need to preserve the legal material on slave holding Enormous amount of material about slaves reflects need to preserve the legal material on slave holding Reflects that slavery just as important in 6 th century CE as it was in 6 th century BCE Reflects that slavery just as important in 6 th century CE as it was in 6 th century BCE

Book 40 of the Digest deals exclusively with manumission Book 40 of the Digest deals exclusively with manumission Manumission forms: during slave owner’s life time, testamentary manumission, conditional release from slavery, how a slave can make claim for freedom, Manumission forms: during slave owner’s life time, testamentary manumission, conditional release from slavery, how a slave can make claim for freedom, Book 11 has large section on corrupting a slave Book 11 has large section on corrupting a slave

Later imperial period: colonate – form of dependent labour lowering status of free peasants; state factories Later imperial period: colonate – form of dependent labour lowering status of free peasants; state factories But Slavery remained important institution in later Empire and continued uninterrupted into early medieval world But Slavery remained important institution in later Empire and continued uninterrupted into early medieval world