Sociology 2: Class 14: World Society Theory Copyright © 2011 by Evan Schofer Do not copy or distribute without permission

Announcements Announcements: Today’s Class: Wrap up World-System Theory –Also called “dependency” theory World Society Theory –Also called “Neo-institutional” theory “institutional” theory, or “world society theory”

Review: Theories of Globalization General perspectives on the economy Adam Smith Marx Keynesianism Sociological theories Modernization theory World Systems Theory / dependency theory World Society Theory / neo-institutional theory Political Science Realism Institutionalism (Political science) / Interdependence Constructivism.

Review: Modernization Theory Argument: All societies naturally pass through certain stages of development All societies start out as “traditional” economies –Based on subsistence farming, hunting/gathering, etc Then, they have an “industrial revolution” Eventually, they become “modern” high-tech societies Modernization involved multiple shifts: Economy: Shift to higher levels of industrialization Institutions: Rise of modern government, legal systems, education systems, etc. People: Creation of “modern” persons –Shift away from “traditional values”, toward science, etc…

Review: Modernization Theory Criticisms: –1. It is very “Eurocentric” / Western-centric Assumes that the West represents the ideal De-values other societies, cultural traditions –2. Modernization theory focuses on a single country, ignores global dynamics Assumes that success/failure is due to internal factors –Rather than relation to others: domination & competition –3. Modernization theory is unable to explain the persistent poverty found in many countries.

Review: World-System Theory (WST) Key Definitions: Core: the rich, developed countries Also: west; metropolitan countries; developed world Periphery: poor, dependent nations Also: underdeveloped countries; satellites; dependencies Semi-periphery: semi-industrialized countries Dependency: The vulnerable state of being exploited by core countries They depend on the core for trade, investment, loans, technology, etc. (related term: underdevelopment).

Review: World-System Theory World-System Theory: We need to study the entire global economy as a world system We can’t understand the fate of a single country, without understanding how it fits into the overall system Countries are rich or poor because of their position relative to others in the global capitalist system. Argument: Europe (the “core) was able to prosper by exploiting resources from other places The great success of Europe and the failures in the non-West weren’t just a coincidence… Europe became wealthy by maintaining economic & military dominance over other nations Exploited nations will never “modernize” as long as they are oppressed by Western nations.

Review: World-System Theory Question: How does WST differ from other analysis of economic globalization? Both agree that economics = important –But, economists often view the world economy positively (or neutrally) Ex: Ricardo thought trade was overall beneficial Ex: Many economists think globalization reduces poverty compared to a world without trade WST argues that globalization perpetuates inequality.

Review: World-System Theory In contrast, WST argues that the global economic system is inherently unfair Economic power of core countries and MNCs is so great that the periphery will always be exploited The idea that governments and international institutions can make the system “fair” is an illusion –Governments and international institutions (e.g., the WTO) will always reflect interests of capitalists –Therefore, WST scholars are pessimistic about the role of global governance in solving social problems… –Consequently, the system must be substantially reorganized… or overthrown.

Review: World-System Theory How does World System Theory view international organizations (like the WTO)? Answer: They reinforce the fundamental economic positions of core and periphery Claim: Most IGOs and INGOs are created by core countries, and will never fundamentally undermine the dominance of the core –IGOs and INGOs tend to perpetuate core dominance –Example: WTO has not given big concessions to periphery The only thing that could help would be organizations representing the peripheral countries against the core!

World-System Theory Question: Is World-System Theory “right”? WST makes many claims. There is no simple answer 1. Analysis of Latin America is generally thought to be compelling 2. Rapid industrialization of South Korea, Taiwan, etc = major exceptions The theory did not predict that… 3. Evidence on foreign/trade investment = mixed, often contradict World System Theory Some studies are consistent with the theory, but many are not.

World-System Theory Criticisms of World System Theory: 1. Research findings are mixed at best Some of the specific WST predictions about sources of global inequality/poverty have been wrong It is true that there is horrible poverty in the world… –But: Are people worse off than if there was no global economy? That is less clear.

World-System Theory 2. Reverse causality –World system theory argues: Countries that are dependent on the core of the world capitalist system will remain poor –BUT, maybe it works the other way around Poverty produced “dependent” relations in the first place Poor countries can’t produce high-tech goods, so they trade commodities (e.g., bananas) But, this doesn’t necessarily mean that trading bananas made those countries poorer or “trapped” them into poverty.

World Society Theory A very different theory of the global system… Emphasizes culture, not economy Also called “world polity theory”; a kind of institutional theory (don’t confuse with “Complex Interdependence”) World Society Theory was also a response to modernization theory The expectation that countries will march through stages of development… Key observation: While countries differ a lot in their level of development, many aspects of their governments look quite similar… World Society Theory argues that this conformity reflects the existence of a common global culture… –Which shapes how elites set up their governments, societies.

Globalization and World Culture We are familiar with the idea that European/Western forms of consumption have spread around the globe: And, popular culture has spread across the world. (Short video, if time allows)

Globalization and World Culture Issue: Perhaps other kinds of culture and ideas are spreading around the globe: Ideas about: How to set up governments How to organize the economy How to organize school systems How to protect the environment How to raise children That could be “culture”, too…

Globalization and World Society World society theory argues that we now have a “world society” with a “global culture” –World Society = organizations, associations, & culture in the international sphere Observation: There is no strong world “state” Rather, there are associations (IGOs, NGOs) –Observation: Participants in the international system share a common culture IGOs and NGOs are typically run by people educated in Western-style tradition, believe in common things Example: Democracy, economic growth, education, etc.

World Society Theory Digression: Thinking about culture and action Question: Why do people vote? Let’s think about individuals, rather than states Conventional Answer: They want to maximize their power and interests… –Realism is an “interest-based” theory of action Thus, they go and vote for candidates that will enact favorable policies Is that what is going on in people’s heads? Do they really think: “Heh, heh, heh… I’ll be rich!”? In fact, a single vote rarely matters… why do people bother?

World Society Theory One alternative to “interest-based” action: Action is governed by culture and social norms A very different view: People vote because they are “supposed to”… We live in a society in which voting is highly valued Example: Some of the biggest predictors of voting include: whether friends or parents vote –If you are surrounded by voters (and pro-voting norms) you are more likely to vote.

World Society Theory How does culture affect us? 1. By providing norms Norms indicate proper behavior in a given situation You could come to class wearing scuba gear… but norms discourage it. In fact, we rarely consider actions that are against norms.

World Society Theory 2. By providing scripts Scripts are taken-for-granted “recipes” for behavior that we share and understand Example: If you are interested in courting someone, you ask them on a date –You do not show up at their house with a dowry gift and ask their father’s permission to marry People in a common culture generally follow similar scripts.

World Society Theory 3. By providing cognitive models “Cognitive models” or “maps” are mental frameworks or blueprints that people share Example: Suppose you were chosen to set up a new school… How would you design it? How many grades? What subjects? How big would classes be? When would the school year be?

World Society Theory Note: Most ideas are drawn from a familiar “model” of the school Would you teach by apprenticeship? Keep boys and girls separate? Teach classes on astrology? Probably not! –In the language of social psychology: We all possess a similar “cognitive model” or “map” of a school It is that which we “take for granted”.

School: Nigeria

School: Cameroon

School: Tajikistan

School: Colombia

School: Guatemala

World Society Theory What do theories predict about schools? –Modernization theory predicted that poor, agricultural societies would be different from “modern” ones Example: Agricultural societies should have different educational systems (e.g., focused on farming) –World system theory predicts that peripheral economies are subordinated by “core countries” Schools should be organized to produce workers; more efficient capitalist exploitation –World society theory predicts that schools will be similar everywhere The result of a common global culture

World Society Theory Key observation: Over the past 50 years societies have become more similar in terms of government and policies Called “isomorphism” Ex: Poor agricultural countries DIDN’T create different educational systems –They adopted systems similar to rich Western countries Ex: Countries also adopted similar legal systems, population and health policies, environmental laws, etc… –The kind of policies everyone is “supposed to” have

World Society Theory World Society Theory suggests that states govern on the basis of cognitive models Cognitive models come from world society Associations, IGOs, NGOs, and other states essentially define “appropriate” behavior for governments –IGOs and NGOs convey models of how to govern Example: World bank conveys models of economic governance; UNESCO suggests educational advice; Amnesty International suggests human rights policies.

World Society Theory “Worldwide models… define appropriate constitutions, goals, organization charts, ministry structures, and policies… Nation- states are imagined communities drawing on models that are lodged at the world level.” Meyer et al Island example: What if a new territory were discovered? How would IGOs, INGOs, & global culture reshape it?

Trends in Environmental Protection Source: Frank et al. 2000

World Society Theory The (partial) success of global environmentalism is seen as evidence in support of World Society Theory Nations appear to conform to new global “norms” “Interest-based” theories (world-system theory & realism) have more difficulty explaining global environmentalism.

World Society Theory Question: How does World Society Theory view international organizations? They play a key role: sustaining and promulgating a common culture to nations around the world Greenpeace, UNEP, and other international organizations convey norms about what nations should do to protect the environment –Note: International organizations don’t have “power”. They can’t force states to do anything Nor does every single country obey the norms But, over time norms have a major effect on behavior.

World Society Theory Issue: Is World Society Theory “right”? World Society theory is a new theory Debated, but growing … –1. World Society research on isomorphism in government policy is considered compelling World Society research now dominates in some areas –Evolutions of education systems around the world –Understanding the success of the environmental movement –Also, lots of work on trends regarding human rights –2. World Society Theorists were first to realize the importance of INGOs in driving social change Other perspectives tended to ignore them…

World Society Theory Issue: Is World Society Theory “right”? –3. The ideas behind World Society Theory have garnered support in other areas –Called “neo-institutional theory” Especially the study of organizations This suggests potential… so people are working to apply its ideas to global issues.

World Society Theory Criticisms of World Society Theory 1. It doesn’t address power This is largely intentional –World Society Theory represents a “ corrective ”, emphasizing the influence of norms and culture But, colonial relations were historically important in defining Western ideas as the dominant ‘world’ culture Also, current global trends clearly reflect Western or American influence –World Society Theory scholars point out that US doesn’t always benefit »e.g., when countries conform to US models of education –But, clearly some countries have more influence than others.

World Society Theory Criticisms of World Society Theory 2. It doesn’t sufficiently address actors or “agency” Again, this is an intentional goal of the theory… which has come under criticism Theory implies we are all controlled by a wider culture –Builds on Durkheim’s ideas of ‘collective consciousness’ Where is room for agency? How can it explain variability in the world?

World Society Theory Criticisms of World Society Theory: 3. World Society Theory explains government policies… but not life “on the ground” Conformity to world culture may be strategic (to garner foreign aid) or very “thin” Ex: China may pretend to conform to global norms… but in fact that is just a façade –Interests, rather than culture are really driving behavior. World Society Theory scholars have begun responding to this criticism… but the issue is still being debated…

World Society Theory Bottom line: World Society Theory is a fascinating theory – offers a whole new lens to view the world A very useful lens that explains some things that other theories can’t Also very useful for understanding organizations… –May be helpful if you start working for a big company –But, people interested in power/inequality find it very frustrating –It doesn’t directly address the issues they care most about Plus, it is a newer perspective… more evidence needed to fully evaluate it.