Danielle Nesbitt EDPY 751

 Motor skill acquisition is a process in which a performer learns to control and integrate posture, locomotion, and muscle activations that allow the individual to engage in a variety of motor behaviors that are constrained by a range of task requirements (e.g. athletic context) (Newell, 1991).

 Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or performance as a result of instruction, experiences, study, and/or practice.  Learning is inferred from changes in performance.  Motor behavior is concerned with the learning or acquisition of skills across the lifespan and encompasses three areas:  Motor learning  Motor control  Motor development

 Motor learning  Study of the acquisition of skills as a consequence of practice.  Motor control  Study of the neural mechanisms and processes by which movements are learned and controlled.

 Early Period ( )  Research focused on how did mind worked, not the production of skills.  Thorndike: Law of Effect ▪ When responses were rewarded, the behavior strengthened.  Middle Period ( )  Craik focused research on how the brain processes and uses information to determine the motor response.  Henry: ▪ “Memory drum theory” (role of cognitive activity in motor learning)  Present Period (1970-present)  Emergence of motor learning and motor control within physical education programs.  Closed Loop theory (Adams)  Schema theory (Schmidt)  Dynamical Systems theory (Kelso)

 WHAT IS SCHEMA?  a schema is the information about : ▪ Where the performer is (knowledge of the environment) ▪ Where what the performer has to do to perform successfully (response specifications) ▪ What a movement feels like (sensory consequences) ▪ What happens when the performer responds (response outcomes)  which is stored and used to update a motor programme when used next

 Recall Schema  This is all the information needed to start a relevant movement  Knowledge of the environment (initial conditions) ▪ Playing conditions, positions of team mates and opponents, condition of the equipment.  The response specifications ▪ Speed and force required, size and shape of movement required, and techniques and styles used.  Recognition Schema  Information needed to correct errors and remember correct performance.  Information about evaluating the response  Sensory consequences (knowledge of performance) ▪ The feeling and look of the performance  Response outcomes (movement outcomes) ▪ The result of performance ▪ Knowledge of results  Used when there is enough time to process feedback, of for evaluation performance

 Input  Information from the environment through the senses.  Decision-making  Input evaluation and integration with past information.  Response selection  Output  Response execution  Feedback  Information about the performance and quality of the movement. Information gained here can guide future interpretations, decisions, and responses.

 Following factors affect development of movement intelligence:  Starting at young age  Learning time  Instructor  Equipment  Progression

 As early as the preschool years  Basic skills = basis for other activities  Walking, throwing, catching  Skill should be taught correctly the first time to avoid development of bad habits

 Without physical experience, skills cannot be effectively learned and maintained  Sufficient time must be allotted for participating in PA’s that enhance movement skills

 Instructors, physical educators, and coaches must be properly trained and have experience with teaching PA  This means having trained physical educators fill such positions, rather than math or music teachers who do not have the necessary background

 Safe, appropriate, and well maintained  e.g., scaled down equipment for children  Lower basketball hoops  Smaller soccer nets  Lighter baseball bats  Effectiveness of teaching movement skills is directly related to the quality of equipment

 Teaching skills in an organized manner that makes skills easier to grasp and learn

 Three general stages of motor learning have been identified (Fitts and Posner, 1967).  Each stage consists of:  Changes that occur as motor learning takes place  Important features unique to each stage

 Begins when task first introduced  Learner cognitively determines:  What the particular skill involves  Performance goals required to perform the skill  Instructions:  Are verbally transmitted (verbal stage)  Serve to convey the general concept of the skill  Self-talk and verbal reminders facilitate learning  Performance: slow, jerky, and awkward

 Focused on performing and refining the skill  Concentration is directed towards smaller details (e.g., timing)  Performance: controlled and consistent  Rapid performance improvements (somewhat slower than fist stage)  Diminished self-talk

 Performance: automatic and very proficient  Attention demands:  Performance improvements:  Slow  Less obvious (e.g., reduced mental effort, improved style, reduced anxiety)

 Information feedback: “the information that occurs as a result of a movement”  Some information is received during the movement and some is provided as a result of the movement  Feedback is one of the strongest factors that controls the effectiveness of learning

Information Feedback Intrinsic Feedback Extrinsic Feedback Knowledge of Performance Knowledge of Results Knowledge of Performance Knowledge of Results Vision Audition Touch Muscle Feeling. Vision Audition Touch Muscle Feeling. Basketball Golf Tennis service ace Darts. Basketball Golf Tennis service ace Darts. Instructor/Coach Parent/Friend Video replay Radar gun Stopwatch Lap times Distance jumped Height jumped Judge’s score.

 Information that is provided as a natural consequence of performing an action Knowledge of performance Arm extension when hitting the tennis ball Knowledge of results Watching the tennis ball land in the opponent’s court

 Information that is provided to the learner by somebody else or some artificial means following a performance outcome  Provides information above and beyond what is naturally available to the learner (augmented feedback)  Can be controlled; when, how, how often…

 Knowledge of results  Information about the degree of success  Not effective when outcome is obvious  Important when outcome is less obvious  Knowledge of performance  Information about the execution of a completed movement  Example: “took your eye off the ball,” “swing was a little late,” etc.

 Extrinsic feedback serves to motivate the learner  Error correction  Therefore, a skilled instructor should be able to reinforce correct actions as well as point out errors

 Providing feedback continuously for a long period of time can lead to dependency  Occasional feedback tends to enhance learning  Various types of feedback that minimize dependency have been identified

 Benefit: teacher can tailor feedback to respect individual differences LowDegree of skill High High Gradually reduced (faded) Feedback

 Descriptive (general) feedback  Indicates something you did, right or wrong  e.g., there was no follow through  Prescriptive (precise) feedback  Provides you with precise correction statements about how to improve your movements  e.g., snap your wrist more on the follow through  Precise feedback generates far better results

 Short-term memory is very susceptible to loss  Generally, the greater the delay of information provision the less effect the given information has  Therefore, immediate feedback is more beneficial

 Adams, J.A. (1971). A closed-loop theory of motor learning. Journal of Motor Behavior, 3,  Fitts, P. M., & Posner, M.I. (1967). Human Performance. Belmont, CA: Brooks Cole.  Newell, K.M. (1991). Motor skill acquisition. Annual Review of Psychology, 42,  Schmidt, R.A. (1975). A schema theory of discrete motor skill learning. Psychological Review, 82, 225  Schmidt, R.A. & Wrisberg, C.A. (2004). Motor learning and performance. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.