Political Configurations in the Middle East before the 20 th Century A very brief snapshot

A map of the region in early centuries

Who were the Ottomans? Founded & ruled one of the world’s biggest and longest-lived empires  Seat of government in Istanbul Muslim Turkish dynasty: Osmanlılar  But drew on many previous dynastic & bureaucratic traditions Encompassed territory from Europe to N. Africa Mehmet the Conquerer riding his horse in front of Aya Sofia church after conquering Constantinople in Source: picturesindex.html

A map of the expansion of the Ottoman Empire

A map of the Ottoman Empire at its height (around 1680) Source:

A map of the contraction of the Ottoman Empire Source: Encyclopedia Brittanica, from

Points about the Empire

1- Non-national model of identity What did it mean to be an Ottoman?

Islamic empire  Sultan as Caliph, or protector of the Faith (but not seen as divine)  Status of Dhimmis Multi-National, Multi-lingual, Multi-Ethnic, Multiple Religions  Turks, Arabs, Greeks, Kurds, Jews, Armenians, Bulgarians, Albanians, Croats, Serbs, etc.  Until 1850, 50% of the Empire’s population lived in the Balkans  State did NOT attempt to create cultural or religious conformity Main social division between the ruling class (askeri) and ordinary people (reaya), NOT between nationalities

Who would you meet if you traveled in the Ottoman Empire?  Settled peasants and villagers  Tribes  Nomads  Prominent local families  Guilds & merchants  Local religious orders and religious leaders  Ottoman officials Picture of a Bulgarian woman in 19 th century finery. Source: Ottoman archives from the Turkish Library.

2-Different state capacity, state-society relations Centralized government but mostly decentralized rule

Ottoman Political Administration A miniature portrait of Sultan Murat III, from the 16 th c. Sultan Bureaucracy Army Ulama Governors (some appointed, mostly A’yan) Grand Vizier & other ministers The Palace (Harem, Chief slaves, etc) * Note that the actual power hierarchy of these groups varied considerably depending on the period

The state’s main duties (what people expected from it)  Defend the borders of the empire  Protect the faith & access to the holy sites (Islam)  Maintain public peace  Access to justice  Individual right of petition An illuminated page from the Quran by Ahmet Karahisari, from the Topkapi Palace collection. How does this differ from our current-day expectations for states?

Source: st275/Map%20List.htm

State-minority relations under the Ottomans Dhimmi status for Christians and Jews  Forced conversions discouraged  Special protection for “people of the book” BUT  2 nd class status  Head tax on non-Muslim males (cizye)  Periodic persecution The Millet system  Christian & Jewish communities largely self-governing, with head of community as liaison between the sultan and the community

3-Evolving empire “Decline” is over-stated!

Main phases of Ottoman rule Classical Period ( ) Rise, expansion and consolidation  Political power primarily in hands of the Sultan Middle Period (1680s-1798) Ottoman integration into the world economy; territorial retraction  Shift in power from sultan to offices of the vizier  Provinces virtually autonomous Long 19 th century ( ) Emergence of the modern Ottoman state  State under pressure from Imperialist Europe  Redefinition in status of religious minorities and women  Newly centralized State: State begins taking over many new tasks

An Ottoman map of Istanbul, from Topkapi Palace, Istanbul.