Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Slides prepared by JoNell Strough, Ph.D. & Philip Lemaster, M.A. West Virginia University Chapter 3 Social Cognition: How We Think About the Social World

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Multimedia Directory Slide 15Schemas and Stereotypes Video

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Social Cognition How people think about themselves and the social world, or more specifically, how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Rodin’s famous sculpture, The Thinker, mimics controlled thinking, where people sit down and consider something slowly and deliberately. Even when we do not know it, however, we are engaging in automatic thinking, which is nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary, and effortless. Source: Sean Nel Shutterstock.com

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Social Cognition Central topic in social psychology People are generally trying to form accurate impressions of the world. People sometimes form wrong impressions.

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Two Kinds of Social Cognition 1.Automatic thinking – Quick – No conscious deliberation of thoughts, perceptions, assumptions 2.Controlled thinking – Effortful and deliberate – Thinking about self and environment – Carefully selecting the right course of action

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. On Automatic Pilot: Low-Effort Thinking We often size up a new situation very quickly. Often these quick conclusions are correct. – Example—You can tell the difference between a college classroom and a frat party without having to think about it.

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. On Automatic Pilot: Low-Effort Thinking Imagine a different approach: slow and deliberate thinking. Imagine driving down the road and stopping repeatedly to analyze every twist and turn. Imagine meeting a new person and excusing yourself for 15 minutes to analyze what you learned from them.

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Automatic Thinking Thinking that is nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary, and effortless. We engage in an automatic analysis of our environments based on past experiences and knowledge of the world.

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Is this man an alcoholic or just down on his luck? Our judgments about other people can be influenced by schemas that are accessible in our memories. If you had just been talking to a friend about a relative who had an alcohol problem, you might be more likely to think that this man has an alcohol problem as well, because alcoholism is accessible in your memory. Source: Guido Koppes/Age Fotostock

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. People as Everyday Theorists: Automatic Thinking with Schemas Schemas – Schemas are the mental structures people use to organize their knowledge about the social world around themes or subjects. – Schemas therefore influence the information people notice, think about, and remember. Sounds exhausting, right?

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. People as Everyday Theorists: Automatic Thinking with Schemas The term schema encompasses our knowledge and impression of: – Other people – Ourselves – Social roles E.g., what a librarian or engineer is like – Specific events E.g., what usually happens when people eat a meal in a restaurant

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Schemas and Stereotypes When applied to members of a social group such as a fraternity, gender, or race, schemas are commonly referred to as stereotypes. – Can be applied rapidly and automatically when we encounter other people.

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Schemas and Stereotypes Video Click on the screenshot for an example of how low-effort thinking using schemas may reflect stereotypes that lead to errors in judgement. Back to Directory

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Function of Schemas Schemas used to – Organize what we know – Interpret new situations Korsakov’s syndrome – Neurological disorder Can’t form memories – Each situation is new

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Schemas as Memory Guides Helps “fill in the blanks” when trying to remember – Remember some information that was there Particularly information to which our schemas led us to pay more attention – Also remember other information that was never there Add this information unknowingly

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Schemas as Memory Guides Examples – Ask people what is the most famous line of dialogue in the classic movie Casablanca, and they will probably say, “Play it again, Sam.” – Ask what is the most famous line from the original Star Trek TV series, and they will probably say, “Beam me up, Scotty.”

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Schemas as Memory Guides Here is a piece of trivia that might surprise you—both of these lines are reconstructions. The characters never said them.

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Memory Reconstructions Tend To Be Consistent with Schemas People who read a story about a marriage proposal can later insert incorrect details – Details not been in the story e.g., future plans, roses – But, details consistent with a marriage proposal schema

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Memory Reconstructions Tend To Be Consistent with Schemas Over time schemas become – Stronger – More resistant to change

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Which Schemas Are Applied? Accessibility and Priming Accessibility – The extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of people’s minds and are therefore likely to be used when we are making judgments about the social world Priming The process by which recent experiences increase the accessibility of a schema, trait, or concept.

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Which Schemas Are Applied? Accessibility Something can become accessible for three reasons: 1.Chronically accessible due to past experience. 2.Accessible because it is related to a current goal 3.Temporarily accessible because of our recent experience

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 3.1 How We Interpret an Ambiguous Situation The role of accessibility and priming.

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Which Schemas Are Applied? Priming Suppose you read about a man named Donald. – Donald’s actions are ambiguous – Could be interpreted as positive or negative

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Which Schemas Are Applied? Priming People who previously memorize words like adventurous – Form positive impressions People primed with words like reckless and stubborn – Form negative impressions Priming is a good example of automatic thinking because it occurs quickly, unintentionally, and unconsciously.

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 3.2 Priming and Accessibility In the second of a pair of studies, people were asked to read this paragraph about Donald and form an impression of him. In the first study, some of the participants had memorized words that could be used to interpret Donald in a negative way (e.g., reckless, conceited), while others had memorized words that could be used to interpret Donald in a positive way (e.g., adventurous, self-confident). As the graph shows, those who had memorized the negative words formed a much more negative impression of Donald than did those who had memorized the positive words. (Based on data in Higgins, Rholes, & Jones, 1977.)

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Persistence of Schemas Jurors given instructions to ignore inadmissible evidence – Beliefs may persist Even if evidence is discredited – Belief persists

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Making Our Schemas Come True: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy The case whereby people – Have an expectation about what another person is like, which; – Influences how they act toward that person, which; – Causes that person to behave consistently with people’s original expectations, making the expectations come true.

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 3.3 The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy A sad cycle in four acts.

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Making Our Schemas Come True: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Teachers led to believe particular students will bloom: 1.Create a warmer emotional climate for those students, giving them more personal attention, encouragement, and support, 2.Give “bloomers” more challenging material,

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Making Our Schemas Come True: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Teachers led to believe particular students will bloom: 3.Give “bloomers” more and better feedback, 4.Give “bloomers” more opportunities to respond in class and give them longer to respond.

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 3.4 The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Percentage of First and Second Graders Who Improved on an IQ Test Over the Course of the School Year Those whom the teachers expected to do well actually improved more than the other students. (Adapted from Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968)

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Making Our Schemas Come True: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Some limits of self-fulfilling prophecies – People’s true nature can win out in social interaction. – Self-fulfilling prophecies are most likely to occur when people are distracted.

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Teachers can unintentionally make their expectations about their students come true by treating some students differently from others. Source: Mary Kate Denny/ PhotoEdit

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Priming Metaphors about the Body and Mind Physical sensations can prime metaphors

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Priming Metaphors about the Body and Mind Metaphors can influence decisions – Holding hot coffee or iced coffee – Encounter a stranger Hot coffee  Primes “warm & friendly” metaphor – Stranger rated as friendly Iced coffee  Primes “unfriendly people are cold” – Rate stranger as unfriendly

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Will this person’s answers to the questionnaire be influenced by how heavy the clipboard is? Why or why not? Source: wdstock/iStockphoto

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Mental Strategies and Shortcuts Mental shortcuts – Efficient Don’t usually have time to fully search all options – Usually lead to good decisions quickly

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Mental Strategies and Shortcuts Schemas are a shortcut people use – But we don’t have a ready-made schema for every judgment or decision – Sometimes there are too many schemas available So what do we do?

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Mental Strategies and Shortcuts Judgmental Heuristics – Mental shortcuts people use to make judgments quickly and efficiently

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Availability Heuristic A mental rule of thumb whereby people base a judgment on the ease with which they can bring something to mind. Trouble—sometimes what is easiest to remember is not typical of the overall picture, leading to faulty conclusions

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Physicians have been found to use the availability heuristic when making diagnoses. Their diagnoses are influenced by how easily they can bring different diseases to mind. Source: Robin Nelson/PhotoEdit

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. How Easy Does it Come to Mind? How Easy Does it Come to Mind? Availability Heuristic – Example When physicians are diagnosing diseases, it might seem straightforward for them to observe people’s symptoms and figure out what disease, if any, they have. – Sometimes, symptoms might be a sign of several different disorders. – Do doctors use the availability heuristic, whereby they are more likely to consider diagnoses that come to mind easily?

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. How Easy Does it Come to Mind? How Easy Does it Come to Mind? Availability Heuristic – Example When physicians are diagnosing diseases, it might seem straightforward for them to observe people’s symptoms and figure out what disease, if any, they have. – Several studies of medical diagnoses suggest that the answer is yes.

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Availability Heuristic and Self- Judgments People were asked to remember either 6 or 12 examples of their own past assertive behaviors – People who thought of 6 examples Rated themselves as relatively assertive It was easy to think of this many examples – “Hey, this is easy—I guess I’m a pretty assertive person”

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Availability Heuristic and Self- Judgments People were asked to remember either 6 or 12 examples of their own past assertive behaviors – People who thought of 12 examples Rated themselves as relatively unassertive it was difficult to think of this many examples – “Hmm, this is hard—I must not be a very assertive person”.

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 3.5 Availability and Assertiveness People asked to think of 6 times they had behaved assertively found it easy to do so and concluded that they were pretty assertive people. People asked to think of 12 times they had behaved assertively found it difficult to think of so many examples and concluded that they were not very assertive people (see the left-hand side of the graph). Similar results were found among people asked to think of 6 or 12 times they had behaved unassertively (see the right-hand side of the graph). These results show that people often base their judgments on availability, or how easily they can bring information to mind. (Adapted from Schwartz et al., 1991)

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. How Similar Is A to B? The Representativeness Heuristic Representativeness heuristic – A mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case Base rate information – Information about the frequency of members of different categories in the population

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Power of Unconscious Thinking Automatic thinking occurs unconsciously. – Although unconscious processes can sometimes lead to tragic errors, unconscious thinking is frequently critical to navigating our way through the world.

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Power of Unconscious Thinking “Cocktail party" effect – Realize that someone across room mentioned your name – Has been demonstrated under controlled experimental conditions

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Research has found that people’s goals can be activated unconsciously by their recent experiences. For example, someone who walks by a church might have the “Golden Rule” activated without knowing it, making him or her more likely to give money to a homeless person. Source: Ginasander/Dreamstime

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Power of Unconscious Thinking Decisions may be influenced by factors outside conscious awareness when there are competing goals – When self-interest conflicts with sharing with others (Shariff and Norenzayan, 2007) Priming altruistic goals – Increases charitable behavior Unaware of influence of prime on decision

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Cultural Determinants of Schemas Cultural Universal – All people have schemas Culture Differences – Content of schemas

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Take a quick look at these two photos and see if you notice any differences between them. As discussed in the text, the differences you notice may have to do with the culture in which you grew up. Source: Takahiko Masuda

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Culture and Social Cognition Analytic thinking style – focus on objects without considering surrounding – context – associated with Western cultures Holistic thinking style – focus on the overall context, relation between objects – associated with Eastern cultures

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Culture and Social Cognition Eastern and Western cultures – equally capable of using both styles – environment in which people live “primes” one style over the other

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Controlled Social Cognition High-Effort Thinking Controlled Thinking – Thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary, and effortful.

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Controlled Thinking and Free Will Association between conscious thought & behavior creates perception of free will – But, forces outside of awareness may influence behavior and conscious thoughts May overestimate or underestimate amount of control

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Controlled Thinking and Free Will Belief in free will – Predicts behavior Cheating Helping

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Facilitated communication was developed to allow communication-impaired people to express themselves. Unfortunately, it appears to be the case that the facilitators were unwittingly controlling the communications. Source: Robin Nelson/PhotoEdit

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Mentally Undoing the Past Counterfactual Reasoning – Mentally changing some aspect of the past in imagining what might have been “If only I had answered that one question differently, I would have passed the test.” – Can have a big influence on our emotional reactions to events – The easier it is to mentally undo an outcome, the stronger the emotional reaction to it.

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Counterfactual Reasoning Among people who had suffered the loss of a spouse or child – Imagining more ways to avert tragedy was associated with greater distress

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Who do you think would be happier: someone who won a silver medal at the Olympics or someone who won a bronze? Surprisingly, research shows that silver medalists are often less happy, because they can more easily imagine how they might have come in first and won a gold. Source: REUTERS/Nikola Solic

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Counterfactual Reasoning Silver medal winners (2nd place) often express greater dissatisfaction than bronze medal winners (3rd place) – Silver May imagine ways they could have placed first and won gold – Bronze May imagine ways they would not have won any medal

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Counterfactual Reasoning Positive consequences – Motivation to improve in future Negative consequences – If it leads to rumination—repetitive focus on negative things – Associated with depression

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Improving Human Thinking Make people more humble – Ask people to consider the point of view opposite to their own People realize there are other ways to construe the world – Make fewer judgment errors Teach basic statistical principles – Facilitates application of principles to everyday life E.g., base rates

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 3.6 Performance on a Test of Statistical Reasoning Abilities by Graduate Students in Different Disciplines After 2 years of graduate study, students in psychology and medicine showed more improvement on statistical reasoning problems than students in law and chemistry did.(Adapted from Nisbett, Fong, Lehman, & Cheng, 1987)

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Summary and Review High effort thinking versus “Automatic Pilot” Schemas Primacy effect

Social Psychology, Eighth Edition Elliot Aronson | Timothy D. Wilson | Robin M. Akert ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Summary and Review Self-fulfilling prophecy Heuristics – Availability Heuristic – Representativeness Heuristic Base rate information Counterfactual thinking