 Affluence: the increased importance of the market and consumption → the rise of ‘teenage consumers’  The rise of mass culture: the growth of the press, radio, mass publishing, and TV.  The disruptive effects of the Second World War: the disruptions of family life → juvenile delinquency

 Education: changes in education → the emergence of an “adolescent society”  The historical organization, development and significance of leisure: movements like the Boy Scouts.

 The establishment of ‘remaja’ as a new concept of youth  Before the New Order regime, youth was associated with heroism in the service to the nation.  During the Japanese occupation, ‘pemuda’ were mobilised for the Japan’s war propaganda.

 In the period of the Revolution, the bravery of youth in armed resistance against Dutch was glorified in historical narratives about the period.  Sukarno constructed youth as being revolutionary