Memory Chapter 8

Memory  Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time.  It is our ability to store and retrieve information.

Information Processing  The Atkinson-Schiffrin three stage model of memory includes; 1)Sensory Memory, 2)Short-Term Memory, 3)Long- Term Memory

Modifications to the 3 Stage Model  Some information skips the first two stages and enters long term memory automatically.  Since we cannot focus on all the sensory information received, we select information that is important to us and actively process it into our working memory.  Working Memory – a newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Encoding: Getting Information In  How We Encode  Some information (your route to school) is automatically processed.  However, new or unusual information (friend’s new cell phone number) requires attention and effort.

Automatic Processing  We process an enormous amount of information effortlessly, such as the following.  Space – while reading a book, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page.  Time – we unintentionally note the events that take place in a day.  Frequency – you effortlessly keep track of things that happen to you.

Effortful Processing  Committing novel information to memory requires effort just like learning a concept from a textbook. Such processing leads to durable and accessible memories.

Rehearsal  Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition.  Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables  TUV  OF  GEK  XOZ

Rehearsal  The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on Day #1, the fewer repetitions were required to remember them on Day #2.

Memory Effects  Spacing Effect – we retain information better when we rehearse over time.  Serial Position Effect – when you recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items.

What We Encode  Encoding by Meaning  Processing the meaning of verbal information by associating it with what we already know or imagine.  Encoding meaning (semantic encoding) results in better recognition later than visual or acoustic encoding.

What We Encode  Visual Encoding  Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.  Showing adverse effects of smoking may be more powerful than simply talking about it.

Mnemonics  Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids.  Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery and organizational devices in aiding memory.  Remembering the Planets

Organizing Information for Encoding  Break down complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide them into categories and subcategories.  Chunking  Organizing items into familiar manageable unit  Phone Numbers  HOMES – Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior  Hierarchies

Storage: Retaining Information  Sensory Memory – the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information.  Short-Term Memory – activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing.  Working Memory – a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.  Long-Term Memory – the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Sensory Memories  The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses. Iconic 0.5 sec. long Echoic 3-4 sec. long Hepatic < 1 sec. long

Sensory Memory  The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss Percent Recognized Time (Seconds)

Working Memory  The new name for short-term memory.  Has a limited capacity of 7+/- 2 items.  Duration of about 20 seconds

Let’s Test Your Capacity  I’m going to show you a list of letters for 20 seconds.  Let’s see how many you can remember.  Ready…

MUTGIKTLRSYP

Capacity  Was your total 7 plus or minus 2?

Chunking  Chunking – organizing items into familiar, manageable units, this often occurs automatically.  F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M  FBI – TWA – CIA – IBM

Chunking  Try this one.  Ready…

Chunking 

Duration  Peterson (1959) measured the duration of working memory by manipulating an individual’s rehearsal.  The duration of working memory is about 20 seconds.

Long-Term Memory  Essentially has unlimited storage capacity.  The Clark’s Nutcracker can hide, then later locate 6,000 buried pine seeds during winter and spring.

Feats of Memory

Information Processing  Encoding – the process of information into the memory system.  Storage – the retention of encoded information over time.  Retrieval – the process of getting information out of memory storage.

Memory Stores

Storing Memories in the Brain  Loftus (1980) reviewed previous research data showing, through brain stimulation, that memories were etched into the brain and found that only a handful of brain stimulated patients reported flashbacks.  Using rats, Lashley (1950) suggested that even after removing parts of the brain, the animals retain partial memory of the maze.  Kandel & Schwartz (1982) showed that serotonin release from neurons increased after conditioning.

Synaptic Changes  Long-Term Potentiation – refers to synaptic enhancement after learning.  An increase in neurotransmitter release or receptors on the receiving neuron indicates strengthening of synapses.

Stress Hormones & Memory  Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories.  Flashbulb Memories - clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events.

Amygdala- 2 emotion processing clusters. Boost activity and proteins in the memory forming areas.

Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories  Explicit Memory – refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.  Implicit Memory – involves learning an action while the individual does not know or declare what he/she knows.  *Amnesia and the tack.

Implicit & Explicit Memory

Hippocampus  Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories.

Anterograde Amnesia  After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M (HM) remembered everything before the operation but cannot make new memories. No New Memories Memory IntactSurgery *What does his memory consist of now?

Implicit Memory  HM is unable to make new memories that are explicit (declarative), but he can form new memories that are implicit (procedural).  HM learned the Tower of Hanoi game after his surgery. Each time he plays it, he is unable to remember the fact that he has already played the game. C B A

Cerebellum  Cerebellum – a neural center in the rear of the brain that processes implicit memories.  Amnesia Patient and the tack.  Damage to the Cerebellum eliminates learned reflexes. *Activity

Measures of Memory-Recognition  In recognition, the person must identify an item amongst other choices.  A multiple choice test requires recognition. 1. Name the Capital of France. 1. Brussels 2. Rome 3. London 4. Paris

Measures of Memory- Recall  In recall, the person must retrieve information using effort.  A fill-in-the-blank question requires recall. 1. The capital of France is ________.

Famous People Slides

Measures of Memory- Relearning  In relearning, the individual shows how much time (or effort) is saved when learning material for the second time. List Jet Dagger Tree Kite … Silk Frog Ring It took 10 trials to learn this list 1 day later List Jet Dagger Tree Kite … Silk Frog Ring It took 5 trials to learn the list

Retrieval Cues  Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory.  Fire  Smell  Smoke  Heat FIRE TRUCK  Truck  Red  Water  Hose

Priming- awakening associations  Say these letters out loud S-H-O-P  What do you do at the mall?  What do you do at a green light?

Priming  To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first activate one of the strands that leads to it.

Context Effects  Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, while they recall more words on land if they learned that list on land.

Context Effects  After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants most strongly respond when retested in the same context rather than in a different context.

Deja Vu  Deju Vu means “I’ve experienced this before.”  Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience.

Moods & Memories  We usually recall experiences that are consistent with our current moods (state-dependent memory).  Emotions, or moods, serve as retrieval cues.

Vegetables Fruits Teachers List

Vegetables FruitsTeachers Alphabetical Order

Compare lists  Does your first list compare to your ranking list?  Typically the things that interest you the most will be the first to come to your mind.

Forgetting  An inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval.  We cannot remember what we do not encode.

Storage Decay  Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay.  The Forgetting Curve

Why don’t we Retain Spanish  Bahrick (1984) showed a similar pattern of forgetting and retaining over 50 years.

Retrieval Failure  Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed.  Tip of the tongue forgetting is a retrieval failure.  Given a cue – What makes blood cells red?  The subject says – The word begins with H (Hemoglobin)

Interference  Learning some new information may disrupt retrieval of other information.

Retroactive Interference  Retroactive Interference – the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.  Sleep prevents retroactive interference, therefore, sleeping leads to better recall.

Proactive Interference  Proactive Interference – the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

Motivated Forgetting  Motivated Forgetting – people unknowingly revise their memories.  Repression – a defense mechanism that banishes anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. Sigmund Freud

Why do we Forget?  Forgetting can occur at any memory stage.  We filter, alter, or lose much information during these stages.

Memory Construction  While tapping our memories, we filter or fill in missing pieces of information to make our recall more coherent.  Misinformation Effect – incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.  Let’s Try It…

Depiction of an Accident

Misinformation  Group A – How fast were the cars going when they HIT each other?  Group B – How fast were the cars going when the SMASHED INTO each other?

Memory Construction  A week later they were asked: Was there any broken glass?  Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A (hit).

Source Amnesia  Source Amnesia – attributing an event to the wrong source that we experienced, heard, read, or imagined.  Misatribution

Children’s Eyewitness Recall  Children’s eyewitness recall can be unreliable if leading questions are posed.  However, if cognitive interviews are neutrally worded, the accuracy of their recall increases.  In cases of sexual abuse, this usually suggests a lower percentage of abuse.  Are memories of abuse constructed?  Many psychotherapists believe that early childhood sexual abuse results in repressed memories.  However, other psychologists question such beliefs and think that such memories may be constructed.

Constructed Memories  Loftus’ research shows that if false memories (lost at the mall or drowned in a lake) are implanted in individuals, they construct (fabricate) their memories.  Improving Memories  Study repeatedly to boost long-term recall.  Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material.  Make material personally meaningful.  Use mnemonic devices.  Activate retrieval cues – mental recreation.  Recall events while they are fresh.  Minimize interference.