1 Behavioral Biology Chapter 52 Biology Raven and Johnson 7 th Ed.

2 Does the name Pavlov ring a bell?

3 Outline Behavioral Genetics Learning The Development of Behavior Animal Cognition Migratory Behavior Courtship Communication in Social Groups Behavioral Ecology Foraging Behavior Territorial Behavior Reproductive Strategies Sexual Selection Mating Systems Altruism Kin Selection Social Systems

4 Approaches to the Study of Behavior Behavior can be defined as the way an organism responds to stimuli in its environment.

5 Behavioral Genetics Recent studies have shown identical human twins, separated at birth, develop many similarities, even though they were raised in very different environments. Behavior may be controlled by one, or many, genes.

6 Learning Influences Behavior Comparative psychologists focus on learning as the major element that shapes behavior. – nonassociative learning  Animal is not required to form association between a stimulus and a response. examples – habituation - decrease in response to a repeated stimulus with no positive or negative consequences – sensitization - increased responsiveness to a stimulus

7 Learning Associative learning – Association between two stimuli or between a stimulus and a response. Classical conditioning - Paired presentation of two different stimuli creates an association between the stimuli (Pavlovian conditioning). Operant conditioning - Animal learns to associate its behavioral response with a reward or punishment. – trial and error Skinner Box- mice learn to push a lever to release food. (They will push a lever to get cocaine and ignore food, sex, and play, until they die.)

8 Learning Instinct – Investigations have shown some animals have innate predispositions toward forming certain associations.  Learning preparedness demonstrates that what an animal can learn is biologically influenced.

9 The Development of Behavior Parent-offspring interactions – imprinting - social attachments to other individuals that will influence behavior later in life (Konrad Lorenz)  sensitive phase or critical period

10 Fig

11 The Development of Behavior Interaction between instinct and learning – Genetic templates may guide young birds to learn appropriate song.  During critical period, the template will accept the correct song as a model.  Only the correct song can be learned, but it still has to be practiced to be sung correctly.

12 Animal Cognition  What does thinking mean?

13 Animal Cognition Central question in animal behavior is whether animals show cognitive behavior. – Do they process information and respond in a manner that suggests thinking ?  Some examples are compelling:  chimpanzees  ravens

14 Fig

15 Orientation and Migration Taxis - movement toward or away from a stimulus – positive (toward) and negative (away) Kineses - increase in general activity level due to increased stimulus intensity Migrations - long-range, two-way movements – monarch butterflies

16 Orientation and Migration Navigation – navigation - ability to set or adjust a bearing and follow it – orientation - ability to follow a bearing  Inexperienced starlings appear to migrate by orientation, while older birds use true navigation.  magnetic field  celestial clues

17 Courtship Stimulus - response chain in which behavior of one individual in turn releases behavior of another individual Courtship signaling – Signals are often species-specific.  Reciprocal responses provide a continuous check on species identity.  Stickleback- see next slide

18 Stimulus-Response Chain This ensures the right species is attracted, and also increases the odds that the eggs will be fertilized.

19 Courtship Pheromones and acoustic signals – Pheromones are chemical messengers used for communication between individuals, and often serve as sex attractants (  Silk moths are the most famous example  In humans egg and sperm—they are from two individuals, right?).  Also human behavior is affected by pheromones. – Many insects, amphibians, and birds produce species-specific acoustic signals to attract mates.

20 Communication in Social Groups Communicated information: – alarm calls – alarm pheromones – trail pheromones – dance language  Waggle dance of European honeybee relays direction and distance of a located food source. – primate vocalizations

21 Waggle Dance of Honeybees Angle indicates direction. Tempo indicates distance.

22 Territorial Behavior Territoriality is behavior in which individual members of a species maintain exclusive use of an area containing a limited resource. – defense against intrusion – made on cost:benefit basis centered around fitness

23 Competition for Space 6 bird species removed (R) were replaced by existing species and by 4 new species (N).

24 Parental Investment and Mate Choice Mate choice occurs when individuals do not mate at random, but appear to make decisions on mates base on quality. – common in females, usually they have a larger reproductive investment Parental investment refers to contributions each sex makes in producing and rearing offspring. – usually higher in females – In mormon crickets, the male invests in a high energy sperm, and the males are more selective.

25 Reproductive Competition and Sexual Selection Sexual selection occurs when individuals compete for mating opportunities. – involves both intrasexual and intersexual selection – leads to evolution of secondary sexual characteristics

26 Products of Sexual Selection a. African paradise whydah b. Peacock c. Eyespots in Peacock/ Mates In many species, the boys dress up for the girls : )

27 Reproductive Competition and Sexual Selection Intrasexual selection – Individuals of one sex compete for the opportunity to mate with individuals of the other sex.  Selection will strongly favor sexual dimorphism. – sperm competition

28 Intersexual Selection Intersexual selection – benefits of mate choice  Males may help rear young, gather food, defend nest, etc.. Indirect benefits – Females may choose healthiest or oldest males.  overall genetic or physiological health  more vigorous offspring

29 Intersexual Selection – Handicap hypothesis  Only genetically-superior males can survive with a handicap. – Sensory exploitation involves evolution in males of an attractive signal that exploits preexisting biases.

30 Mating Systems Number of mates – monogamy - one male and one female – polygyny - one male and many females – polyandry - one female and several males Needs of offspring – altricial - require extensive, prolonged care (ex. Humans) – precocial - require little parental care

31 Mating Systems Extra-pair copulations -- (cheating) – Researchers found that in one study, 20% of red-winged blackbird offspring were a result of extra-pair copulations.  may be very pervasive  Males benefit by increased mating success.  Females may benefit by increased rearing assistance.

32 Factors Favoring Altruism and Group Learning Altruism - performance of an action that benefits another individual at a cost to the actor (nest helpers) – Natural selection would seem to argue against altruism.  Such acts may not be truly altruistic, and may be benefiting the actor.  Nest helpers may gain parenting experience or inherit territory.

33 Factors Favoring Altruism and Group Learning Reciprocity - Individuals may form partnerships in which mutual exchanges of altruistic acts occur. Ex: Vampire bats will share blood with those who have shared with them in the past. Kin selection - By directing aid toward close genetic relatives, an altruist may increase reproductive success of its relatives enough to compensate for the reduction in its own fitness. – The more closely related the individuals, the more likely the potential genetic gain.

34 Altruism Hamilton’s Rule- Altruistic acts (acts that benefit another member of the same species) are favored when rb > c r = relatedness –proportion of shared alleles b = benefit c = cost

35 Examples of Kin Selection Belding’s ground squirrel – sound alarm calls when spot predators  Females are more likely to call than males because colony is mostly her relatives.

36 Group Living - Evolution of Social Systems Society - group of organisms of the same species organized in a cooperative manner Insects – All ants, some bees, some wasps, and all termites are eusocial.  Eusocial colonies are composed of different castes of workers that differ in size and morphology and have different tasks to perform.

37 Vertebrate Societies Vertebrate social groups are usually less rigidly organized and cohesive. – Some complex systems exhibit both reciprocity and kin-selected altruism.  also display higher levels of conflict and aggression among group members

38 Summary Behavioral Genetics Learning The Development of Behavior Animal Cognition Migratory Behavior Courtship Communication in Social Groups Behavioral Ecology Foraging Behavior Territorial Behavior Reproductive Strategies Sexual Selection Mating Systems Altruism Kin Selection Social Systems

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