PSY 338: Motivation Chapter 6: Incentive Motivation

Incentive Motivation The idea that motivation is not just innate but is based primary on external incentives Can be thought of as mediator (M) that comes between the stimulus characteristics (S) of some goal object and the responses (R) that are directed toward the object SMR Indications are these are actually two separate links: One between the stimulus and mediator and then a second between the mediator and response SM, MR More on this theory later (Overmier & Lawry Model)

Incentives as energizers Crespi (1942) Procedure Rats running for pellets Group 1: Initial small reward; then switched from small reward to larger reward Group 2: initial large reward; then switched from large reward to smaller reward Group 3: served as a control (no change in reward) Results Initially, Group 2 > Group 1 Group 1: Started running faster Group 2: Started running slower See next slide 

Incentives as energizers <---------- Preshift -------------> Postshift -------------> Crespi (1942)

Incentives as energizers Results Initially, Group 2 > Group 1 Group 1: Started running faster Group 2: Started running slower Interpretation Different incentive objects affect how hard the organism is willing to perform (motivation) but not the rate of learning as had been previously thought After 20 trials, all three groups were getting the same amount of reward, yet it was viewed differently depending on the group Crespi (1942)

Incentive Motivation (K) If a goal can influence behavior even before that goal is reached, then organisms must in some way come to anticipate the availability of the goal Hull-Spence and rg – sg Consummatory Response (Rg ) Witnessed response from incentive Incentive value of goal object could be indexed by the vigor of this response Stimuli present when Rg occurs will become associated with it (classical conditioning) and tend to elicit Rg directly

Incentive Motivation (K) Hull-Spence and rg – sg Consummatory Response (Rg) Rg response does not occur in a vacuum; rats running a maze will be affected by the extent that the stimuli also occur before the organism reaches the goal box will determine whether Rg will be elicited Of course this would be disruptive; therefore, a fractional anticipatory response is more likely the result

rg – sg Mechanism Organism can sense if it is making the Rg Sensory feedback (Sg) allows for this This rg – sg mechanism serves to motivate the instrumental responses that must be made in order to get to the goal box and engage in the Rg This is an entirely mechanical process; through the process of classical conditioning, the stimuli in the environment come to elicit small parts of the final Rg and the Sg from these responses serves to motivate ongoing behavior

rg – sg Mechanism How does previous experience with reward become an incentive? Spence (1956) Proposed that environmental cues become associated with rewards RG changes with the stimuli related to SG RG becomes more apparent as the organism gets closer to the goal Seeing the rewarding stimulus results in arousal, rg and sg, motivating approach behavior As the organism approaches the goal area, more and more stimuli should occur that have been associated with RG

rg – sg Mechanism What if the external stimuli are different at the beginning of the route as compared to the goal box? Not just based on external cues The sensations we feel when we are hungry are with us all the way from start to goal and thus they are present when RG occurs and should also elicit a fractional anticipatory response

Problems with Anticipatory Response Spence hypothesized a peripheral nervous system response He posited that Rg consisted of minute muscular responses and the associated sensory feedback from these muscle contractions Other researchers found no reliable physiological change with instrumental behavior They suggest that the response may be CNS not ANS The change is in activation of some brain region, not an autonomic response

Persistence of behavior: RF - SF Mechanism Why do we persist even after instances of difficulty or failure? Other times we don’t. Seems to be related to anticipatory responses

RF - SF Mechanism What happens when a rat reaches a goal in which it has been previously rewarded but now finds nothing? If the rat has been in the situation several times and has been rewarded then incentive motivation has been instituted by the rg – sg mechanism Amsel & Roussel (1952) Result is an unlearned frustration response (RF ) Occurs when it discovers all its efforts (fractional anticipatory response) are for naught

RF - SF Mechanism Amsel & Roussel (1952) Used Spence’s idea of anticipatory states to explain inhibition Frustration motivates avoidance and suppression of approach behavior Nonreward produces RF - SF mechanism motivating avoidance Anticipation of RF - SF motivates avoidance

RF - SF Mechanism Amsel & Roussel (1952) Any stimuli present at the time RF occurs will likely become associated with it and if these stimuli also occur early in the sequence of events it will elicit the anticipatory frustration response As with the rg – sg mechanism, the organism knows it is making these responses based on the feedback stimuli which in this case is referred to as frustration response stimulus feedback (SF) These partial frustration responses typically cause the animal to stop its present behavior and engage in some other behavior But not always… See next slide 

Persistence of behavior: RF - SF Mechanism Amsel (1952): Counterconditioning Motivation generated by the frustration of nonreward gets channeled into the very response that causes the frustration The competing responses that would normally develop as a result of this frustration are countered by the situation The motivation becomes conditioned only to responses that can easily occur For example, responses leading to the sometimes filled goal box Thus, RF - SF mechanism serves as a motivator for ongoing behavior

Persistence of behavior: RF - SF Mechanism Amsel (1952): Counterconditioning Most likely to occur when someone began with a partial reinforcement schedule Much more persistence than from a continuous reinforcement schedule During, continuous reinforcement rg – sg builds up; motivating necessary responses to reach goal When taken away, frustration causes avoidance During, partial reinforcement rg – sg builds up too; but not as much (slower process) During, partial reinforcement rf – sf builds up too on the unrewarded trials Alternating competing and persistent responses are seen from those in these situations

Incentives as generators of emotion Mowrer (1960) Felt that four primary emotions were involved in incentive motivation Fear A drive state (which is negative) occurs during emotion of fear The emotional responses associated with the state of fear will become connected to any stimuli also present at the time the emotion occurs Thus, any stimuli present serve as cues to fear that will elicit drive Conditioned fear motivates organism to make response to escape from the situation containing the fear cues (avoidance behavior)

Incentives as generators of emotion Mowrer (1960) Hope Decrease in drive leads to the emotion of hope; cues present at the time hope occurs will become associated with the emotion and will eventually begin to serve as signals that a decrease in drive is imminent Stimuli that produce the emotion of hope will activate behaviors that will keep the organism in their presence (approach behavior)

Incentives as generators of emotion Mowrer (1960) Disappointment Occurs when hope cues that predict a decrease in drive, do not lead to an actual reduction in drive Negative state that motivates the organism to remove itself from cues that signal disappointment (avoidance behavior) Relief This occurs when cues that signal an increase in drive are removed Thus, stimuli present when fear cues are removed will then become relief signals Organisms will strive to maintain situations that predict relief (approach behavior)

Cognitive Formulations Tolman (1959) Behavior is not an automatic response to the environment but has direction and purpose Expectations will lead to goal oriented behavior The environment conveys goal-relevant information Stimuli point to reward or punishment Expectancy Key aspect of Tolman’s theory Incentive objects influence behavior only if they are experienced enough times so that a cognitive expectation is built up

Predictability Bolles & Moot (1972) Felt that cues become incentive motivators to the extent that they predict the arrival or withdrawal of some goal object A cue takes on motivational control only to the extent that it predicts some future event Can lead to motivated behaviors Can cause demotivation as well

Overmier & Lawry Model Overmier & Lawry (1979) These researchers posit that there are two independent systems which act like mediators between environmental stimuli and an organisms response to the stimuli First system involves a link between the stimulus and mediator (SM) Second system involves a link between mediator and response (MR)

Overmier & Lawry Model Overmier & Lawry (1979) Incentives have both an energizing and an informational function Energizing aspect motivates person to respond (first system) Incentives mediate behavior through informational properties as well; incentives serve as cues that aid in response selection (second system) Informational aspect seems to be more important At least this is he case when the two aspects compete for the control of behavior Incentives alter performance because they provide information about goals

Overmier & Lawry Model Overmier & Lawry (1979) Both systems appear to be connected to secondary reinforcers; these reinforcers play role as they have energizing and response selection properties For example, money is a secondary reinforcer

The Bindra Model Bindra (1968) Proposed idea that there was a central motive state that activated goal-directed behavior toward incentive objects Motivational states and emotional states were identical The organismic state (drive) and the stimuli from the goal object (incentive) combine to produce the central motive state Innate sensorimotor coordinations prepare us for contact with or escape from the incentive object This model assumes that incentive stimuli serve both energizing and directional functions

The Bindra Model Bindra (1968) Positive Incentives These lead to approach behavior Negative Incentives These lead to avoidance behavior

Meaningfulness Klinger (1977) Posits that incentive motivation is based on relationships People pursue objects, events, and experiences that are emotionally important for them (meaningful) We are motivated to obtain or keep incentives that we prize Incentives & Goals Incentives are things that are valued; goals are things a person is willing to expand effort to attain Being committed to a goal requires dedication

Meaningfulness Klinger (1977) Disengagement occurs when a goal is made unreachable Disengagement Phases Invigoration If blocked from reaching a goal; behavior gets stronger for a while Primitivation Stereotyped and primitive behavior will result from not reaching goal Aggression Very primitive action

Meaningfulness Klinger (1977) Depression Feelings of helplessness and hopelessness Recovery Success in obtaining goals in other areas may lead to overall recovery

Incentive Aspects of Sexual Motivation Pheromones Chemical messengers emitted into the environment that are sexually arousing Evidence that this is the case with some animals No direct evidence that this is the case for people

Learned Sexual Stimuli Lopez & Ettenberg (2002) Procedure Male rats copulate with female rats in a room with a distinctive odor; 5 trials Put in isolation in a room with different scent after each trial Later they were allowed to run down an alley with 3 rooms at the end. One had the scent used in the room they had sex, another a scent of the room they were kept captive in, and a third room had no scent Results They ran the quickest to the room with the scent used in the sex room Interpretation The scent associated previously with sexual activity became a conditioned (learned) response

Learned Sexual Stimuli Money & Ehrhardt (1972) Humans have sexual signaling system; visual at a distance, touch close-up

Female Attractiveness Symons (1979) Two major attributes: health and age (evolutionary perspective again) Third characteristic: novelty “Coolidge effect” No one particular physical characteristic that is consistently reported

male Attractiveness Berscheid & Walster (1974) Height is the only male physical trait that was consistently considered sexually attractive to women Other studies say skills and abilities are what attract women to men; also status ranks high (evolutionary perspective yet again)

Incentive Motivation & Physical Addictions Incentive motivations appear to play some role in physical addictions Results from hedonic value of the incentive object Probably some type of interaction with biological factors Classical and operant conditioning seem to be involved Certainly, the role of external factors is not as clear as the role of biological factors; genetic influences, etc. More research needed in this area

Behavioral Addictions Clear evidence that goal objects in the environment have motivational effects on our behavior Reasonable to assume that incentive motivation processes are involved in behavioral addictions as well Some examples: gambling, sex, compulsive eating, compulsive shopping, running, Internet Cues associated with these behaviors become incentive motivators by inducing a craving for those behaviors More research needed here as well

Credits Some slides prepared with the help of the following websites: www.thocp.net/reference/artificial_intelligence/hull.ppt