Chapter 11 Helping and Altruism

Chapter Outline  Motivation to Help Others  Characteristics of the Needy That Foster Helping  Normative Factors in Helping  Personal and Situational Factors in Helping  Bystander Intervention in Emergency Situations  Seeking and Receiving Help

Prosocial Behavior  Refers to a broad category of actions that are considered by society as being beneficial to others and as having positive social consequences.

Helping  Any action that has the consequence of providing some benefit to or improving the well-being of another person.

Altruism  Helping that is intended to provide aid to someone else without expectation of any reward (other than the good feeling that may result).

Empathy  Refers to the vicarious experience of an emotion that is congruent with or possibly identical to the emotion that another person is experiencing.

Motivation to Help Others  Egoism is helping behavior motivated by a person’s sense of self-gratification.  Altruistic behavior is often mediated by empathic arousal in response to others’ distress.

Egoistic Motivation  People tend to help more when it leads to rewards, such as social approval, material gain, and satisfaction of personal needs.  People often refuse to help when it entails costs, such as danger and effort.  They also avoid costs imposed for not helping, such as public disapproval and self- condemnation.

Altruistic Motivation  Our similarity to victims increases our empathy.  Empathic concern motivates altruism.

Empathy-Altruism Model  Proposes that adults can experience two distinct states of emotional arousal while witnessing another’s suffering: –Distress - shock, alarm, worry, and upset –Empathy - compassion, concern, warmth, and tenderness

Evolutionary Viewpoint  Evolutionary psychologists posit that altruistic behavior is selectively targeted to increase the chances that our own genes will be passed on to subsequent generations. –We are most likely to help those who are closely related to us.

Kin Selection  Altruistic acts can increase the survival of one’s genes if those altruistic acts are directed toward others who share the same genes.

Characteristics of the Needy That Foster Helping  Acquaintanceship and Liking - –We are inclined to help people whom we know.  Similarity –We are more likely to help those who are similar to us.  Deservingness –We respond more when the person’s dependency is caused by circumstances beyond their control.

Normative Factors in Helping  Norms define when helping is appropriate: –The social responsibility norm directs us to help whoever is dependent on us. –The norm of reciprocity tells us to reciprocate intentional benefits we receive. –Personal norms help when we notice another’s need and feel responsible for relieving it.

Volunteering: A Function Of Norms And Responsibility Denial

Personal and Situational Factors in Helping  Modeling Effects –An factor that promotes helping is the presence of someone else who is helping, a behavioral model.  Gender Roles –Men are more likely to help in heroic or chivalrous situations entailing risk. –Women are more likely to help in situations requiring nurturance, caretaking, and emotional support.

Personal and Situational Factors in Helping  Good moods –Reduce self-preoccupation, increase attention paid to others’ needs, and feelings of good fortune.  Bad moods –Increase self-preoccupation and feelings of being underbenefited.  Guilt –Helping boosts transgressors’ self-esteem and relieves guilt.

The Effects of Good Mood on Helping % Who Helped Mood Picking up Dropped Papers Mailing a Lost Letter Making a Phone Call for a Stranger Neutral mood 4%10% 12% Good mood 88% 83%

Bystander Intervention  The term bystander intervention denotes a quick response by a person witnessing an emergency to help someone who is endangered.  A theory proposed by Latane and Darley maintains that bystanders go through a specific decision making sequence prior to giving help in emergencies.

Making a Decision to Act A potential helper must: 1. Notice something is happening. 2. Interpret the situation as an emergency. 3. Decide they have the responsibility to act. 4. Know or recognize the appropriate form of assistance. 5. Decide to implement the chosen behavior.

Deciding to Intervene

The Bystander Effect  In emergency situations, potential helpers are influenced by their relations with other bystanders.  Social psychologists use the term bystander effect to refer to the finding that as the number of bystanders increases, the likelihood that any one bystander will help a victim decreases.

The Bystander Effect  Students who were engaged in a discussion via intercom heard one participant begin to choke, then gasp and call for help, as if he were undergoing a serious nervous seizure.

Evaluation Apprehension  Bystanders may feel evaluation apprehension, concern about what others expect of them and how others will evaluate their behavior.  This process wherein a bystander does not take action to help because other persons share the responsibility for intervening is called diffusion of responsibility.

The Arousal/Cost-Reward Model  Proposes that bystanders weigh the needs of the victim and their own needs and goals, and then decide whether helping is too costly in the circumstances.

Predicted Effects of Cost Factors on Helping Cost of Not Helping the Victim Cost of Directly Helping the Victim LowHigh Direct intervention by bystander Indirect intervention Or Redefinition of the situation Low Variable reactions (function of perceived norms in the situation) Leaving the situation, ignoring, denial, etc.

Seeking and Receiving Help  From the standpoint of the recipient, help is a mixed blessing.  Although providing benefits, it may also cause the recipient to become indebted to the helper. –In such a case, a recipient may develop resentment toward the helper.

Acceptance of Help  An important determinant of whether help is appreciated or resented is the extent to which it undermines the recipient’s self-esteem.  If helpers communicate that recipients are inferior, the net result may be a reduction in recipients’ self-esteem.  Help can increase recipients’ dependency and weaken their future self-reliance.