Oral Language Development Education 388 Lecture 4 February 1, 2007 Kenji Hakuta

is the from with consist identify analyze imply diagonal salinity verb monarchy box walk place flower Function words Common content words Academic words Disciplinary words

L2 Concepts Language transfer and interference Errors vs. mistakes Learning vs. acquisition Affective filter Semilingualism vs. bilingualism

Language transfer and interference Pathway of second language acquisition is in part dependent on similiarities and differences between L1 and L2.

Errors vs. mistakes Errors are systematic and come from developmental causes, e.g., “He wented.” Errors are diagnostic of the developmental system, whereas mistakes are the result of sloppiness / fatigue and are random.

Learning vs. acquisition According to Krashen there are two independent systems of second language performance: 'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'. The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act. The 'learned system' or 'learning' is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge 'about' the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules. According to Krashen 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition'.

Affective filter Krashen's view that a number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These variables include: motivation, self- confidence and anxiety.

Semilingualism vs. bilingualism Semilingualism is the state of an individual with incomplete development in both L1 and L2. Is this best thought of as a disability, or a sociolinguistic situation, or a poorly defined understanding of what language proficiency is? This is controversial.

Coxhead’s Advice Learners should read academic texts and listen to academic lectures and discussions. Where possible, the written and spoken texts should not be too difficult for learners, with no more than about 5% of the running words in the texts being new words for the learners. Learners should have the chance to speak in academic discussion and write academic texts using academic vocabulary. Learners should directly study words from the list using word cards and doing intensive study of short academic texts. Source: Averil Coxhead:

Coxhead’s Advice Focus on retrieving the words rather than recognising them. Every time you retrieve a word the connection between the form of the word and its meaning is made stronger. Using word cards with the word to be learned on one side and the translations on the other forces you to retrieve the word. Source: Averil Coxhead:

Coxhead’s Advice Space the number of repetitions of the words you are learning because spacing repetitions results in longer lasting memory. The best spacing is to review the words a few minutes after first looking at them, then an hour or so later, then the next day, then a week later and then a couple of weeks after that. Source: Averil Coxhead:

Coxhead’s Advice Process the words thoughtfully so that the depth of learning is better. Use techniques which encourage you to make a lot of associations with the words you are learning. For example, think of language contexts and situational contexts in which you could use the words. Source: Averil Coxhead:

Coxhead’s Advice Avoid interference between the words you are learning by choosing words which are spelled differently and start with different letters. Don't learn words with similar meanings at the same time. Words which look the same or share similar meanings are easy to confuse and make your learning less effective. Source: Averil Coxhead:

Other advice Paraphrase when you can, but not to excess. Notice, and clarify, idiomatic expressions. Native language is OK, Point out cognates when you can. Maintain vocabulary lists for the class, and each student for his/herself. Be aware of cognitive and background knowledge constraints on vocabulary reference.

Get me the silox.

Draw a circle around the silox.

Draw a circle around Spot.

Some Ellis Observations Direct grammar instruction has limited impact on oral language production. Functional grammar teaching is helpful. Test-like performance can be different from spontaneous oral language production. Groupwork can be helpful – quality of groupwork is very important.

Ellis Principles Mix of formulaic expressions and rule-based competence. Predominance of meaning, but form is also important. Implicit knowledge of L2 is important, but explicit knowledge is also important. Learners have a built-in syllabus Extensive L2 input is important. Opportunities for output and interaction are important. Opportunities to interact in L2 is important. Individual differences of learners matters. Linguistic knowledge occurs in different levels.

Some Potential Advantages of Groupwork The quantity of learner speech can increase. The variety of speech acts can increase. There can be more individualization of instruction. Anxiety can be reduced. Motivation can increase. Enjoyment can increase. Independence can increase. Social integration can increase. Students can learn how to work together with others. Learning can increase. (Source: Ellis, based on Jacobs 1998)

Things to Pay Attention to: Students’ orientation to the task Individual accountability Group composition Distribution of information Physical arrangement of students Collaborative skills Group permanence and cohension Teacher’s role

Student’s orientation to the task. Task is meaningful and engaging. Individual accountability Each individual has specific role and responsibilities. Group composition Optimal size (4?) plus heterogeneity of group. Distribution of information If possible put lower proficiency student in charge of information. Physical arrangement of students Student seating arrangement especially for eye contact and audibility Collaborative skills. Provide and monitor use of collaboration language – e.g., how to disagree, negotiate meaning. Group permanence and cohesion Give group opportunity to establish working style. Teacher’s role Teacher can model collaboration, observe and monitor student performance, intervene as necessary, participate in groups Source: Ellis, 2005 Groupwork: Things to Pay Attention to

Things to Observe in Groups: Possible Characteristics of Collaborative Interaction Predominance of first person plural pronouns. Few, or absence, of directives. Text co-constructed (i.e., each student adding to or extending his/her partner’s contributions. Language-related episodes initiated by means of a request. Interactive responses lead to group consensus. Evidence of scaffolding. (Ellis, based on Storch, 2001)