1 The Gunpowder Empires Ottomans, Safavids, Mughals and Early Modern Europe

2 Rule of the Ottomans

3 The Ottoman Empire ( )‏ Osman leads bands of semi-nomadic Turks to become ghazi: Muslim religious warriors –Captures Anatolia with light cavalry and volunteer infantry –Later, heavy cavalry –In Balkans, forced Christian families to surrender young boys to military service: devshirme –Often grew up to be exceptionally loyal Janissaries

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5 The Silk Rope or the Golden Cage Beginning with the Sultan Bayazit I, policy of fratricide –Killed 19 of his male siblings and drowned 7 pregnant harem girls –Carried out by deaf, mute eunuch assassins used silk rope for strangulation –Became matter of written law for future sultans Distance from throne at death of father, could decide next sultan. First order was to kill his brothers Sultan Ahmet I broke fratricide tradition by imprisoning mentally challenged brother in the Kafe or Golden Cage.

6 Kafe or Golden Cage (interior)‏ Extravagant prison cell Windows only on second floor Slot for delivering food.

7 Sultan's Family Tree

8 Mehmed II (“the Conqueror,” r )‏ Capture of Constantinople, 1453 Renamed Istanbul Transformation from warrior sultan to emperor of “two lands” (Europe, Asia) and “two seas” (Black Sea, Mediterranean)‏ Planned to capture Pope, unsuccessful

9 Suleyman the Magnificent (r )‏ Expanded into Asia, Europe Besieged Vienna, 1529 Develops naval power

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11 I. The Ottomans: From Frontier Warriors to Empire Builders Mid-1200s, Mongols defeat Seljuks –Ottomans emerge dominant Into Balkans, 14th, 15th centuries –1453, take Constantinople Expansion –Middle East, north Africa, Europe –Dominate Mediterranean A. A State Geared to Warfare--Military dominant –Turkic horsemen become warrior nobility –Janissary infantry –Conscripted youth from conquered peoples The Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal Empires

12 B. The Sultans and their Court Use factions against each other Vizier Oversees large bureaucracy Succession No clear rules C. Constantinople Restored and the Flowering of Ottoman Culture Suleymaniye mosque, 16th century Commercial center Government control of trade, crafts Artisan guilds Turkish prevails Expansion of the Ottoman Empire

13 D. The Problem of Ottoman Decline Strong until late 1600 Decline Extended Infrastructure insufficient Dependent on conquest End of conquest brings deficiencies Regional leaders divert revenue Sultans less dynamic

14 E. Military Reverses and the Ottoman Retreat Janissaries Conservative Stop military, technological reform Lepanto, 1571 Defeated by Spain, Venice Turks lose control of eastern Mediterranean Portuguese outflank Middle East trade Sail around Africa into Indian Ocean Victories over Muslim navies Inflation Caused by New World bullion Comes at same time as loss of revenue from control of trade

15 STRIPPING THE EMPIRE

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17 INTO THE JAWS OF DEATH

18 Armenian Genocide, 1915

19 The Safavid Empire Ismail young military leader, r Orphaned, parents killed by enemies Becomes Shah, proclaims official religion of realm Twelver Shiism –Twelve infallible imams after Muhammad –12 th imam in hiding, ready to take power –Wore distinctive red hat, called quzilbash (“red heads”)‏ Empire called Safavid, after Safi al-Din ( ), Sufi thinker

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21 Shiite Pilgrims at Karbala

22 Battle of Chaldiran (1514)‏ Ottoman Selim the Grim attacks Safavids Heavy use of Ottoman gunpowder technology give them the upper hand Ismail escapes, two centuries of ongoing conflict Shah Abbas the Great (r ) revitalizes weakened Safavid empire –Reforms administration, military –Expands trade –Military expansion

23 The Safavid Empire II. The Shi’a Challenge of the Safavids Safavid family –Sufi preachers, mystics –Sail al-Din –Leads revival –1501, Ismâ'il takes Tabriz –Named shah Chaldiran, 1514 –Safavids defeated by Ottomans

24 A. Politics and War under the Safavid Shahs Tahmasp I –Becomes shah Abbas I (1587-­1629) –Height of Ottoman Empire –Persians as bureaucrats B. State and Religion –Adopt Persian after Chaldiran –Also Persian court traditions –Shi'ism modified –Spreads to entire empire C. Elite Affluence and Artistic Splendor Abbas I supports international trade, Islamic culture –Building projects –Mosques in Isfahan

25 D. Society and Gender Roles: Ottoman and Safavid Comparisons Commonalities Warrior aristocracies Move to rural estates after conquest Threat to central power Imperial workshops Artisans patronized International trade encouraged Women lose freedom Subordinate to fathers, husbands

26 –E. The Rapid Demise of the Safavid Empire – Abbas I –Removes heirs –Weak grandson inherits –Decline begins –Internecine conflict Religious power of mullas weakens dynastic control – Outside threats from Afghani Kurds 1772, Isfahan taken by Afghanis –Nadir Khan Afshar supports exiled shah and unites Declares self Shah, 1736

27 The Mughal Empire Zahir al-Din Muhammad (Babur the Tiger), Chagatai Turk, invades northern India for plunder, 1523 Gunpowder technology gives Babur advantage Founds Mughal (Persian for Mongol) dynasty Expands through most of Indian subcontinent

28 Akbar (r )‏ Grandson of Babur Wins fear and respect after throwing Adham Khan, leader of the army, out the window twice –Second time just to make sure he was dead Created centralized government Destroyed Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar Religiously tolerant, promoted “Divine Faith” –Syncretic form of Islam and Hinduism

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30 Aurangzeb (r )‏ Expands Mughal empire into southern India Hostile to Hinduism –Demolished Hindu temples, replaced with mosques –Tax on Hindus to encourage conversion

31 III. The Mughals and the Apex of Muslim Civilization in India Babur Driven from Afghanistan Invades India, 1526 Turkic Panipat, 1526 Defeats Muslim Lodi dynasty –Khanua, 1527 Defeats Hindu confederation –1530, death Succeeded by Humayn Flees to Persia Mughal rule restored by Humayn by 1556 The Growth of the Mughal Empire from Akbar to Aurangzeb

32 –A. Akbar and the Basis for a Lasting Empire –Humayn's 13-year-old son –Reconciliation with Hindus –New religion, Din-i-Ilahi Blend of Islam and Hinduism –Toleration –B. Social Reform and Social Change Women –Position improved –Widows encouraged to remarry –Child marriages discouraged –Sati prohibited –Seclusion undermined by women's market days

33 C. Mughal Splendor and Early European Contacts Death of Akbar Reforms don't survive Empire strong Cotton textiles to Europe Especially among laboring and middle classes D. Artistic Achievement in the Mughal Era Jahangir and Shah Jahan, 17th century Continue toleration Less energetic Support arts Taj Mahal

34 E. Court Politics and the Position of Elite and Ordinary Women Nur Jahan Wife of Jahangir Head of powerful faction Mumtaz Mahal Wife of Shah Jahan Also powerful Ordinary women Position declines Sati spreads among upper classes Other of Akbar's reforms die out

35 F. The Beginnings of Imperial Decline Aurangzeb Succeeds Shah Jahan Programs –Rule all India –Cleanse Islam of Hindu taint 1707, controls most of India –Expensive, distracting Other developments disregarded –Revolt –Autonomy of local leaders Hindus exluded from high office Non-Muslims taxed Marattas and Sik hs challenge rule

36 Common Elements of Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal Empires Empires based on military conquest (“gunpowder empires”)‏ Prestige of dynasty dependent on piety and military prowess of the ruler –Close relations with Sufism, ghazi tradition Steppe Turkish traditions –Issuance of unilateral decrees –Intra-family conflicts over power 1595 Sultan massacres 19 brothers (some infants), 15 expectant women (strangulation with silk)‏

37 Women and Politics Women officially banned from political activity But tradition of revering mothers, 1 st wives from Chinggis Khan Süleyman the Magnificent defers to concubine Hürrem Sultana –Originally Roxelana, Ukrainian woman –Convinces husband to murder eldest son in favor of her own child

38 Agriculture and Trade Columbian Exchange crops effect less dramatic change in Muslim empires –Coffee, tobacco important –Initial opposition from conservative circles, fearing lax morality of coffee houses Population growth also reflects territorial additions and losses Trade with English East India Company, French East India Company, and Dutch East India Company(VOC)‏

39 Population Growth

40 Religious Diversity Ottoman Empire: Christians, Jews Safavid Empire: Zoroastrians, Jews, Christians Mughal Empire: Hindus, Jains, Zoroastrians, Christians, Sikhs Mughal Akbar most tolerant –Received Jesuits politely, but resented Christian exclusivity –Enthusiastic about syncretic Sikhism, self- serving “Divine Faith”

41 Status of Religious Minorities Non-Muslim protected people: dhimmi –Payment of special tax: jizya –Freedom of worship, property, legal affairs Ottoman communities: millet system of self-administration Mughal rule: Muslims supreme, but work in tandem with Hindus –Under Akbar, jizya abolished –Reaction under Aurangzeb

42 Capital Cities Istanbul cultural capital of Ottoman empire, massive monumental architecture Rededication of Hagia Sofia church as Aya Sofiya mosque Ishafan major Persian city Akbar builds magnificent Fatehpur Sikri –Chooses site without sufficient water supply, abandoned –Taj Mahal example of Mughal architecture

43 Deterioration of Imperial Leadership Ottoman princes become lazy through luxury –Selim the Sot (r )‏ –Ibrahim the Crazy (r )‏ Attempts to isolate them compounds the problem Religious tensions between conservatives and liberals intensify –Role of women Wahhabi movement in Arabia denounces Ottomans as unfit to rule –Force destruction of observatory, printing press Safavid Shiites persecute Sunnis, non-Muslims and even Sufis

44 Economic and Military Decline Foreign trade controlled by Europeans Military, administrative network expensive to maintain –Janissaries mutiny when paid with debased coinage, 1589, other revolts follow Unproductive wars European military technology advances faster than Ottomans can purchase it

45 Cultural Conservatism Europeans actively studying Islamic cultures for purposes of trade, missionary activities Islamic empires less interested in outside world Swiftly fell behind in technological development –e.g. Jews from Spain establish 1 st printing press in Anatolia in late 15 th century –But printing of books in Turkish and Arabic forbidden until 1729 Handwritten books preferred, but weak levels of dissemination

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