Pastoral Societies Navajo Quechua

Pastoralism Areas unsuitable for agriculture Nomadic or semi-nomadic –Transhumance – some move with animals –Nomadism – everyone moves with animals Extensive, temporary land use Climate change, lands taken –Trade, gardening, jobs Social functions of animals –marriage –rituals –blood compensation –status

Organization of Labor –Unit of production: family or family cluster –Gender Little overlap Sami vs. Navajo Animal size –Children work Land and property –Use rights –Animals, housing, domestic goods –Most patrilineal Conflict with farmers Sustainable if no outside intervention

Maasai of Kenya and Tanzania –Cattle = wealth –Only slaughter for ritual occasions –Sustainable before colonial intervention Controlled burns Transhumance followed indigenous wildlife Organized use of water and pasture Open access (use rights) British colonization in 19 th century Conflict over land use/ownership Integration into global market economy

Use Rights vs. Ownership “Un-owned” land confiscated by governments –Tourism, farms, ranches –Resources –Control, taxes Homestead Acts –1862: 160 acres –1909: 320 acres –1916: 640 acres –Discontinued in U.S. 1976, Alaska 1986 Indigenous peoples –Forced assimilation, exploitation, extermination –Loss of knowledge of sustainable relationships with environment In ,000 Cherokee people were forcefully removed from their homelands in Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee to live in Indian Territory, now Oklahoma. The Cherokee called this journey the "Trail of Tears," because Over 4,000 of them died of hunger, disease, and exhaustion on the forced march.

First Intensive Agricultural Societies ~5,000 years ago

Agriculture Intensive Animal & machine power Irrigation, chemicals, technology More capital & labor inputs Increased carrying capacity Occupational specialization Greater stratification Permanent settlements Private property Larger families Increased population density Cultural/technological adaptation: Intensive agriculture  increased surpluses & population  specialization  stratification

Family Farming/Peasant Agriculture Small-scale Tied to larger political & market systems Subsistence & some surplus to sell Use labor from own household Sedentary Foundation for society Most exploited Organization of Labor –Family = unit of production –Distinct gender division of labor –Public/private dichotomy

Industrialism Mass commercial and business employment Industrial capitalism: Production for consumer demands Decrease in agricultural employment Increase in manufacturing & service employment Foraging  Horticulture  Agriculture  Industrialism –Increase in agricultural productivity (carrying capacity) –Population growth –Increased urbanization

Industrial Agriculture/Agribusiness Capital intensive Mechanized energy sources Technological & chemical inputs Rural  urban migration High environmental costs GM crops Corporate farms Fish farms Factory farms Factory Fishing Ships

Consequences of Industrial Agriculture Increased energy use –6 calories for 1 calorie of food –Least energy-efficient mode of production Decline of the family farm –Use of exploited hired labor –Displaces other systems –Destroys habitats Unsustainable –E.g. failure of “Green Revolution” –Animal agriculture –GM crops

Division of Labor Intensive agriculture  increased surpluses & population density  increased occupational specialization Gender Age Occupational specialization

Economics – Exchange Systems Production, consumption, and exchange Sall-scale “moral economies” vs. Western economics –Reciprocity & redistribution vs. market exchange –Relationships & generosity vs. maximization & competition –Group solidarity & cooperation vs. individual gain

What is Exchanged? Material goods –Food, hxaro items, pigs Knowledge, information Symbolic goods –Myths, rituals, magic spells, styles Labor –Barn-raising, agricultural labor –‘Moral economy’ – trust, sharing Money –Shells, salt, cattle, furs, yams, coins People –Slaves –Marriage