8.1 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Implementation of Page Table Page table is kept in main memory Page-table base register (PTBR) points to the page table Page-table length register (PRLR) indicates size of the page table In this scheme every data/instruction access requires two memory accesses. One for the page table and one for the data/instruction.

8.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Implementation of Page Table The two memory access problem can be solved by the use of a special fast-lookup hardware cache called associative ( 組合 ) memory or translation look-aside buffers (TLBs) Some TLB allow certain entries to be wired down, meaning that they cannot be removed from the TLB. Typically TLB entries for kernel code are wired down. Some TLBs store address-space identifiers (ASIDs) in each TLB entry – uniquely identifies each process to provide address-space protection for that process Typically, the number of entries in a TLB is small, often between 64 and 1024

8.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Associative Memory Associative memory – parallel search Address translation (p, d) If p is in associative register, get frame # out Otherwise get frame # from page table in memory Page #Frame #

8.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Paging Hardware With TLB

8.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Effective Access Time Example Associative Lookup = 20 nanoseconds Assume memory cycle time is 100 nanoseconds Hit ratio – percentage of times ( 次數 ) that a page number is found in the associative registers; ratio related to number of associative registers Let Hit ratio =  Effective Access Time (EAT) EAT = ( )*  + ( )(1 –  ) = 220 – 100 * 

8.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Memory Protection Memory protection implemented by associating protection bits with each frame. For example, one bit can define a page to be read-write or read-only. The approach could be expanded to a finer level of protection Valid-invalid bit attached to each entry in the page table: “valid” indicates that the associated page is in the process’ logical address space, and is thus a legal page “invalid” indicates that the page is not in the process’ logical address space

8.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Valid (v) or Invalid (i) Bit In A Page Table A program with logical addresses 0 to Note that a logical address of is ‘valid’, but it will be blocked by limit register.

8.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Shared Pages Shared code One copy of read-only (reentrant) code shared among processes (i.e., text editors, compilers, window systems). Shared code must appear in same location in the logical address space of all processes Private code and data Each process keeps a separate copy of the code and data The pages for the private code and data can appear anywhere in the logical address space

8.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Shared Pages Example

8.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles 8.5 Structure of the Page Table Hierarchical Paging Break up the logical address space into multiple page tables A simple technique is a two-level page table, in which the page table itself is also paged page number page offset p1p1 p2p2 d where p 1 is an index into the outer page table, and p 2 is the displacement within the page of the outer page table

8.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Two-Level Paging Example A logical address (on 32-bit machine with 4K page size) is divided into: a page number consisting of 20 bits a page offset consisting of 12 bits Since the page table is paged, the page number is further divided into: a 10-bit page number a 10-bit page offset of the outer pager table

8.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Address-Translation Scheme Since address translation works from outer page table inward, it is also known as forward-mapped page table.

8.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Two-Level Page-Table Scheme

8.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Three-level Paging Scheme For a system with 64-bit logical address space, the following should be avoided: Too many levels would require too many number of memory accesses To translate each logical address.

8.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Hashed Page Tables Common in address spaces > 32 bits The virtual page number is hashed into a page table. This page table contains a chain of elements hashing to the same location. Virtual page numbers are compared in this chain searching for a match. If a match is found, the corresponding physical frame is extracted. A variation uses cluster page tables, where each entry in the hash table refers to several pages (such as 16) rather than a single page

8.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Hashed Page Table

8.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Inverted Page Table One entry for each real page of memory Need only one inverted page table in a system Entry consists of the virtual address of the page stored in that real memory location, with information about the process that owns that page Decreases memory needed to store each page table, but increases time needed to search the table when a page reference occurs Use hash table to limit the search to one — or at most a few — page-table entries Hard to implement shared memory

8.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Inverted Page Table Architecture

8.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles 8.6 Segmentation Memory-management scheme that supports user view of memory A program is a collection of segments. A segment is a logical unit such as: main program, procedure, function, method, object, local variables, global variables, common block, stack, symbol table, arrays

8.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles User’s View of a Program

8.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Logical View of Segmentation user spacephysical memory space

8.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Segmentation Architecture A logical address consists of a two tuple: Segment table – maps two-dimensional physical addresses; each table entry has: base – contains the starting physical address where the segments reside in memory limit – specifies the length of the segment Segment-table base register (STBR) points to the segment table’s location in memory Segment-table length register (STLR) indicates number of segments used by a program; a segment number s is legal if s < STLR

8.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Segmentation Hardware

8.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Segmentation Architecture Protection With each entry in segment table associate:  validation bit = 0  illegal segment  read/write/execute privileges Protection bits associated with segments; code sharing occurs at segment level Since segments vary in length, memory allocation is a dynamic storage-allocation problem A segmentation example is shown in the following diagram

8.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Example of Segmentation

8.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles 8.7 Example: The Intel Pentium Supports both segmentation and segmentation with paging CPU generates logical address Given to segmentation unit  Which produces linear addresses Linear address given to paging unit  Which generates physical address in main memory  Paging units form equivalent of MMU

8.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Logical to Physical Address Translation in Pentium segment number protection s g p offset LDT/GDT 32 LDT: local descriptor table GDT: global descriptor table Each entry in LDT or GDT has 8-byte segment descriptor with detailed information about the segment, including the base location and limit of that segment

8.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Intel Pentium Segmentation

8.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles Pentium Paging Architecture skip 8.7.3

8.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005 Operating System Principles 8.8 Summary The following considerations are used in comparing different memory management strategies: Hardware support Performance Fragmentation Relocation Swapping Sharing Protection