CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES IN PSYCHOLOGY To understand the practice of research in social psychology, it is necessary to examine the research approaches used in psychology. The approach to conducting, interpreting and applying research that a psychologist takes is based primarily on his or her belief in a particular theory or perspective of human behaviour. While there is general agreement among psychologists that scientific methods should be used in research, social psychologists take different approaches to the study of human social behaviour. The most widely accepted contemporary perspectives in social psychology fit into 6 categories. An explanation of each theoretical perspective demonstrates the variety of approaches to the study of human social behaviour.

FOCUSING ON THE INNER PERSON PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE

Advocates of the psychodynamic perspective believe that behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories and conflicts that are generally beyond people’s awareness and control.

SIGMUND FREUD ( ) Austrian physician and the founder of psychoanalysis Received his medical degree from the University of Vienna and set up a private practice in the treatment of psychological disorders Freud & Breur collaborated on the theory that many phobias or compulsions are rooted in traumatic childhood experiences. They believed that in order to overcome a phobia a person had to confront issues from the past. Used hypnosis and later a technique called free association in order to help patients to surface and eventually to face traumatic experiences submerged in their subconscious.

FREUD CONTINUED 1900s published his most famous book, The Interpretation of Dreams Freud’s theories demonstrate how philosophy and science are combined in the discipline of psychology Interested in studying how the mind affected the body Studied paranoia, hysteria, mental illnesses Explored how personalities are formed Freud’s bold theories with their emphasis on sexuality were generally not received by psychologists of his time During WWII sought refuge in England where he passed away from mouth cancer in 1939.

SIGMUND FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY Suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior. To Freud, the unconscious is a part of the personality about which a person is unaware. It contains infantile wishes, desires, demands and needs that are hidden, because of their disturbing nature, from conscious awareness. Freud suggested that the unconscious is responsible for a good part of our everyday behavior.

According to Freud, one’s personality has 3 aspects: the id, the ego and the superego. The id is raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality that is present at birth. It represents primitive drives related to hunger, sex, aggression and irrational impulses. The id operates according to the “pleasure principle”, in which the goal is to maximize satisfaction and reduce tension. The ego is that part of the personality that is rational and reasonable. Providing a reality check for the demands of the id, the ego acts as a buffer between the outside world and the primitive id. The ego operates on the “reality principle”, in which instincts are restrained in order to maintain the safety of the individual and help integrate the individual into society. The superego represents a person’s conscience, incorporating distinctions between right and wrong. It develops around age five or six and is learned from an individual’s parents, teachers and other significant figures

VIDEO CLIPS documentary part 1

ERIK ERIKSON ( ) German-born American Developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychosocial development of human beings. Famous for coining the phrase identity crisis.

ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY Suggests that developmental change occurs throughout our lives in eight distinct stages. The stages emerge in a fixed pattern and are similar for all people. Erikson argues that each stage presents a crisis or conflict that the individual must resolve. Although no crisis is ever fully resolved, making life increasingly complicated, the individual must at least address the crisis of each stage sufficiently to deal with demands made during the next stage of development.

StageBasic Conflict Important Events Outcome Infancy (birth to 18 months) Trust vs. MistrustFeeding Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliabilty, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust. Early Childhood (2 to 3 years) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Toilet Training Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt. Preschool (3 to 5 years) Initiative vs. GuiltExploration Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt. School Age (6 to 11 years) Industry vs. InferioritySchool Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority. Adolescence (12 to 18 years) Identity vs. Role Confusion Social Relationships Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self. Young Adulthood (19 to 40 years) Intimacy vs. IsolationRelationships Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years) Generativity vs. Stagnation Work and Parenthood Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world. Maturity(65 to death) Ego Integrity vs. Despair Reflection on Life Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.

8 STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT