Sociology 125 Lectures 18 & 19 Gender November 6 & 8, 2012

I. GENDER & NATURE

1.Definitions of Sex & Gender Sex = a biological distinction based on roles in the process of biological reproduction Gender = a social distinction between roles and expectations linked to sex. Gender is the social transformation of a biological difference – sex – into a social difference. Gender norms are the rules of appropriate behavior and roles for men and women.

2. What is Natural? Women Men The intensity of caregiving behavior HighLow Gender gap in caregiving I. Existing distribution of caregiving in a world with strong gender norms

II. Hypothetical distributions of caregiving in a world with weak gender norms Women Men Gender gap in caregiving Men Women Gender gap in caregiving HighLow High 2. What is Natural? The intensity of caregiving behavior

II. THE EMPIRICAL STORY: MASSIVE TRANSFORMATIONS IN THREE GENERATIONS

Seven important elements of transformations of gender relations 1.Legal Rights 2.Labor force participation 3.Occupational Structure & Income 4.Power 5.Family structure 6.Domestic division of labor 7.Sexuality

1. Legal Rights

Legal Rights gained by women in 20 th Century Right to vote (1920) Right to own passport (early 1930s) Equal right to divorce (gradually since 1940s) Reproductive rights (1973, but eroding) Equal rights to university admission (1960s) Equal rights to all jobs (1960s) Equal rights to participate in sports (1972)

2. Labor Force Participation

2. Labor Force Participation Rates of Married Women with Children,

3. Occupational Structure & Income

% of People in Selected Traditionally Male Professions who are Women, 1930, 1960, 1990, 2000, 2007

% Enrollments in Medical & Law Schools who are women,

secretary98.1%96.1% RN97.8%91.2% Dental Assistant98.6%97.1% Carpenter1.6%1.9% Airline pilot1.6%4.9% auto mechanic1.6%1.7% % of Women in Selected Highly Gender-Segregated Jobs

Women’s wages = 63% of men’s wages Women’s wages = 82% of men’s wages Men’s and Women’s median wages,

4. Power

% of Large Corporations with at least one woman on board of directors

% of corporate officers and CEOs who are women

Women elected officials,

Women in national legislatures, 2009 (%)

5. Family Structure

% of Households that consist of a Married Couple

% of Women ages who have Never Married, % 14.3% 27.3%

6. Domestic Division of Labor

mothersfathers

Ratio 4.1:1 Ratio 3.2:1 Ratio 2.0:1 Time spent per week on child care for fathers and mothers in homes with children mothersfathers

7. Sexuality

III. EXPLAINING TRANSFORMATION

The Question Women have always tried to increase their autonomy and reduce their subjection. But throughout most of history these struggles have produced at best minimal change. Why do these struggles produce big changes sometimes and not others? Why in second half of the 20 th century was there such massive transformation?

The general answer While women have tried throughout history to increase their autonomy and reduce their subordination, they could only succeed in doing this on a large scale once social conditions had changed in ways that made existing gender power relations fragile.

Three basic processes 1.Decline in a coherent interest among men to defend male domination 2.Erosion of institutional system of female domesticity which eroded women’s interest in traditional gender relations 3.Increase in capacity for challenge by women

1.The decline of coherent male interests in male domination Central explanation: The rapidly increasing economic demand for literate labor by male employers undermined male interest in excluding women.

2. The Crisis of Female Domesticity

Traditional social supports for domesticity = a coherent system Stable marriage/personal relations fostered domesticity blocked work opportunities increased the attractiveness of domesticity A family wage made domesticity economically feasible dense social networks supported domesticity (neighbors, churches, communities, etc.) cultural norms and sexism reinforced identities and expectations

Collapse of the system of coherent domesticity beginning in the 1960s decline of stable marriage means women cannot count of support of husbands expansion of work opportunities increased the viability of alternatives to domesticity decline of the family wage made domesticity economically difficult erosion of dense social networks makes domesticity more isolated and difficult challenge to cultural norms and traditional sexism contributes to new identities

3. The Women’s movement & Feminism

V. THE WORLD TODAY: DILEMMAS AND PROSPECTS

World #1World #2 Average wages of men and women are about the same Good quality childcare is provided by the government or employers free or at low cost Generous paid parental leave for caregiving emergencies and early infant care Average wages of women are 75-80% of wages of men No childcare is provided by government or employers; private daycare is expensive or of poor quality no paid parental leave for caregiving emergencies or early infant care World #1 is like Sweden World #2 is like the United States 1. Imagine two possible worlds

Dramatic decline in family size unlikely to be reversed: permanent erosion of lifetime domesticity as an ideal Traditional marriage stability unlikely to be restored Women’s labor force participation unlikely to be reversed Women’s participation in powerful and influential positions unlikely to decline 2. IRREVERSIBILITY OF FUNDAMENTAL CHANGES

Gender equality imposes costs on some women and erodes some of the security that comes with traditional female dependency. Certain ways of life, valued by many women and men, are threatened by gender equality. Men have contradictory interests with respect to gender inequality: men have much to gain from gender equality, but some losses as well. Gains for men = opening up of choices around parenting & work; the cult of masculinity blocks the full development of personhood in men. Losses = more competition for higher jobs; end of gender- based privileges. 3. The problem of Winners & Losers

1.Pay Equity: equal pay for comparable work 2.Quality public provision of childcare in neighborhoods and workplaces 3.Generous paid parental leaves 4. Three reforms

Paid Parental Leaves in Various Countries Weeks

The Family Ideals and Fallback Positions of Young Men and Women