MIDDLE-RANGE THEORY Chapter 7 pgs

Preview of the Lessons Introduction Introduction Overview of the theories in the 1960’s and 70’s. Overview of the theories in the 1960’s and 70’s. Building a Paradigm Building a Paradigm Robert Merton Robert Merton The Functional Analysis The Functional Analysis Information Flow Theory Information Flow Theory The Diffusion of Innovation Theory The Diffusion of Innovation Theory

Klapper’s Phnomenistic Theory Klapper’s Phnomenistic Theory Mass Entertainment Theory Mass Entertainment Theory Elite Pluralism Theory Elite Pluralism Theory Power Elite Theory Power Elite Theory

MIDLE-RANGE THEORY MIDLE-RANGE THEORY A theory composed of empirical generalizations based on empirical facts.

Introduction: Introduction: The 1950’s & 1960’s in the US was the era of the studies on the effects of television viewing. Research questions such as how was TV effecting the nation? What were the negative effects that could undermining the moral fabrics of the society? The 1950’s & 1960’s in the US was the era of the studies on the effects of television viewing. Research questions such as how was TV effecting the nation? What were the negative effects that could undermining the moral fabrics of the society? Schramm, Lyle, Lowery, DeFleur Schramm, Lyle, Lowery, DeFleur

In 1960’s & 1970’s saw the Mass Communication research was dominated with the Limited Effects Paradigm (e.g. influenced by Lazarsfeld & Hovland) In 1960’s & 1970’s saw the Mass Communication research was dominated with the Limited Effects Paradigm (e.g. influenced by Lazarsfeld & Hovland) These findings addresses important troubling questions concerning the role of the media. Results presented were over generalization and made sweeping assumptions based on marginal evidence. These findings addresses important troubling questions concerning the role of the media. Results presented were over generalization and made sweeping assumptions based on marginal evidence.

The view of the media has limited effects led to other theories, namely the Functional analysis, Information Flow Theory, Diffusion of Information Theory, Phnomenistic Theory, Mass Entertainment Theory and Elite Pluralism Theory. The view of the media has limited effects led to other theories, namely the Functional analysis, Information Flow Theory, Diffusion of Information Theory, Phnomenistic Theory, Mass Entertainment Theory and Elite Pluralism Theory.

Paradigm Shift The old paradigm (thinking) stated that: Media influence some people under some conditions but not most people under most conditions. The old paradigm (thinking) stated that: Media influence some people under some conditions but not most people under most conditions. The new paradigm is to further explore which media influence on which people and under what conditions. The new paradigm is to further explore which media influence on which people and under what conditions. To help materialized these objectives elite funding (e.g. Rockfeller Foundation, CBS, National Science Foundation – government & corporate bodies) sponsored these research. To help materialized these objectives elite funding (e.g. Rockfeller Foundation, CBS, National Science Foundation – government & corporate bodies) sponsored these research.

Robert Merton (1949) provided a conceptual foundation for the new paradigm. He wrote two books Social theory and Social structure (1949) & On the Theoretical Society (1967) that led to the development of the Middle- Range Theory. Robert Merton (1949) provided a conceptual foundation for the new paradigm. He wrote two books Social theory and Social structure (1949) & On the Theoretical Society (1967) that led to the development of the Middle- Range Theory.

The Middle Range Theory Middle Range Theory believed that the future of social sciences lay in producing, collecting and applying empirical generalizations & constantly discovering new research questions. Middle Range Theory believed that the future of social sciences lay in producing, collecting and applying empirical generalizations & constantly discovering new research questions.

Merton’s idea of Middle-Range Theory is as follows: Merton’s idea of Middle-Range Theory is as follows: 1.It consist of limited sets of assumptions from which hypotheses were derived and confirmed by empirical evidence. 1.It consist of limited sets of assumptions from which hypotheses were derived and confirmed by empirical evidence. 2.These theories were not separated but rather they belongs to network. 2.These theories were not separated but rather they belongs to network.

3.These theories were extremely abstract. 3.These theories were extremely abstract. 4. This theory cuts across between micro- sociologist problems. 5. The theory acknowledged missing facts / shortcomings. 5. The theory acknowledged missing facts / shortcomings.

A. Functional Analysis The study of the media for their contribution to the society ‘It created a system of balance’. (value -good or bad- is neutral) The study of the media for their contribution to the society ‘It created a system of balance’. (value -good or bad- is neutral) That society consisted of complex set of interrelated activities, each of which support or dependent on each other. That society consisted of complex set of interrelated activities, each of which support or dependent on each other.

Functionalist supported the idea that media has its functions as well as dysfunctions (Lasswell & Wright, 1960) Functionalist supported the idea that media has its functions as well as dysfunctions (Lasswell & Wright, 1960)

Lasswell & Wright (1960) ‘Functional analysis of mass communication’ Lasswell & Wright (1960) ‘Functional analysis of mass communication’ FUNCTIONS FUNCTIONS 1. Surveillance: informs, provide news warning of natural dangers. 1. Surveillance: informs, provide news warning of natural dangers. 2. Correlation: selects, interprets, criticizes. 2. Correlation: selects, interprets, criticizes. 3. Transmissions of culture: teaches, increase cohesion. 3. Transmissions of culture: teaches, increase cohesion.

4. Entertainment: mass culture arts, music etc. 4. Entertainment: mass culture arts, music etc.

DYSFUNCTION DYSFUNCTION 1. Narcotization, over-exposure 1. Narcotization, over-exposure 2. Enhance conformity, stereotyping, creates pseudo images. 2. Enhance conformity, stereotyping, creates pseudo images. 3.Reduces variety of subcultures, standardization 3.Reduces variety of subcultures, standardization 4. Non-entertainment 4. Non-entertainment

Manifest Functions Manifest Functions –Intended and observed consequences of media use. Latent Functions Latent Functions - Unintended and less easily observed consequences of media use.

WEAKNESS: WEAKNESS: Accepting the status quo. Accepting the status quo. Dysfunctions easily balance by functions. Dysfunctions easily balance by functions. Negative functions easily balanced by positive functions. Negative functions easily balanced by positive functions. Rarely permits the conclusions about media’s roles. Rarely permits the conclusions about media’s roles.

Strength & Weakness of the Functional Analysis STRENGTH: STRENGTH: Positions of media & their influence in larger social system. Positions of media & their influence in larger social system. Offers balance view of the media’s role. Offers balance view of the media’s role. Is based on empirical research. Is based on empirical research.

B. Information Flow Theory This is a theory of how information moves from media to audiences to have specific intended effects (information diffusion theory). This is a theory of how information moves from media to audiences to have specific intended effects (information diffusion theory). The need to know what the public need to do in times of crisis. The need to know what their leaders were doing to deal with threats from abroad is important, The need to know what the public need to do in times of crisis. The need to know what their leaders were doing to deal with threats from abroad is important,

The flow of information from elites to the public was essential to counter the threats (e.g. communists ideology, outbreak of epidemic diseases etc.) The flow of information from elites to the public was essential to counter the threats (e.g. communists ideology, outbreak of epidemic diseases etc.)

In 1950’s many surveys & field experiments were conducted to access the flow of information from media to mass audience. In 1950’s many surveys & field experiments were conducted to access the flow of information from media to mass audience. Among them (Frankouser & McCombs,1971) did their studies on access of media effectiveness in transmitting informing the mass audience. The work was pattern after persuasion research. Survey research were used to gather data. Among them (Frankouser & McCombs,1971) did their studies on access of media effectiveness in transmitting informing the mass audience. The work was pattern after persuasion research. Survey research were used to gather data.

Persuasion research had identified numerous barriers to persuasion e.g. namely education, amount of media use for news, interest in news, talking about news, hard news (politics, science, world events) vs soft news (sports, entertainments, human interest etc). Persuasion research had identified numerous barriers to persuasion e.g. namely education, amount of media use for news, interest in news, talking about news, hard news (politics, science, world events) vs soft news (sports, entertainments, human interest etc). E.g. in one instant leaflets were dropped to every household in one small town in Washington. The result was not very encouraging only very few people return the leaflets. E.g. in one instant leaflets were dropped to every household in one small town in Washington. The result was not very encouraging only very few people return the leaflets.

That Case No2. survey team visited certain homes and that they could earn 1 lb of free coffee by teaching a coffee slogans to their neighbors. It produces mixed results. That Case No2. survey team visited certain homes and that they could earn 1 lb of free coffee by teaching a coffee slogans to their neighbors. It produces mixed results. One hand almost every family had heard about the free coffee slogan & try to reproduced it. Unfortunately many gave the wrong slogan. There was a distortion from the original slogan. Many people are confused & distorted. i.e. free gifts were insufficient to guarantee the flow of information. One hand almost every family had heard about the free coffee slogan & try to reproduced it. Unfortunately many gave the wrong slogan. There was a distortion from the original slogan. Many people are confused & distorted. i.e. free gifts were insufficient to guarantee the flow of information.

Possible dissertation & misunderstanding was high. Even if the media deliver accurate information of news but when it reaches most people it might be the wrong information. Possible dissertation & misunderstanding was high. Even if the media deliver accurate information of news but when it reaches most people it might be the wrong information. The most important limitation of information flow theory is that the message must be simplistic, liner & source dominated (from the point of view of the source) e.g. authoritative source media – government etc. The most important limitation of information flow theory is that the message must be simplistic, liner & source dominated (from the point of view of the source) e.g. authoritative source media – government etc.

Information Flow Theory STRENGTHS STRENGTHS 1. Examine the process of mass communication in real world. 1. Examine the process of mass communication in real world. 2. Provides theoretical basis for successful public information campaigns. 2. Provides theoretical basis for successful public information campaigns. 3. Identify barriers to information flow. 3. Identify barriers to information flow. 4. Helps understand information flow during crisis. 4. Helps understand information flow during crisis.

WEAKNESSES WEAKNESSES 1. Too simplistic, liner, source dominated. 1. Too simplistic, liner, source dominated. 2. Assumes ignorant, apathetic audience. 2. Assumes ignorant, apathetic audience. 3. Fails to consider utility or value of information for receiver. 3. Fails to consider utility or value of information for receiver. 4. Is too accepting of status quo. 4. Is too accepting of status quo.

C. Information Diffusion Theory This theory explains how innovations are introduced and adopted by various communities. This theory explains how innovations are introduced and adopted by various communities.

The Diffusion Theory Rogers (1962) combines all – i.e. the theory of information flow, personal influence including that of (anthropology, sociology & rural agriculture). Rogers (1962) combines all – i.e. the theory of information flow, personal influence including that of (anthropology, sociology & rural agriculture). He viewed thousands (10,000+) of studies. Information diffusion theory guided his research & facilitate interpretation of it.

He extended the Lazarfeld’s original Two-step flow theory (the role of intermediaries) with diffusion theory was so successful that information flow theory became known as Information Diffusion Theory. He extended the Lazarfeld’s original Two-step flow theory (the role of intermediaries) with diffusion theory was so successful that information flow theory became known as Information Diffusion Theory.

When new technological innovation was adopted they will pass through several stages before they are widely adopted. When new technological innovation was adopted they will pass through several stages before they are widely adopted.

Stages of Roger’s innovation decision process (mental – five levels) are as follows: Stages of Roger’s innovation decision process (mental – five levels) are as follows: Knowledge Knowledge Persuasion Persuasion Decision Decision Implementation Implementation Confrontation Confrontation

Stages of Roger’s decision-making process are as follows: Stages of Roger’s decision-making process are as follows: 1. Innovators (Awareness), 2.Early Adopters, 3.Early Majority (Opinion 4.Leaders), 5.Late Majority (Opinion leaders & Followers ) and 6.Laggards

EARLY ADOPTERS EARLY ADOPTERS People who adopt an innovation early even before significant amounts of information are received. People who adopt an innovation early even before significant amounts of information are received. Opinion leaders Opinion leaders Opinion followers Opinion followers Laggards Laggards

Significant of Roger’s contributions: a. Diffusion contribute little to the role of mass media. a. Diffusion contribute little to the role of mass media. b. Media only creates awareness. b. Media only creates awareness. c. Only the early adopters directly influence by media contents. c. Only the early adopters directly influence by media contents. c. Diffusion efforts led by change agent (early adopters & opinion leaders) c. Diffusion efforts led by change agent (early adopters & opinion leaders)

Media only draw attention to innovations as the basis of group discussions led by change agents. Media only draw attention to innovations as the basis of group discussions led by change agents. Information diffusion theory was consistent with limited effect thinking. Information diffusion theory was consistent with limited effect thinking.

The Diffusion Implications: The Diffusion Implications: Rogers’s theory was very influential. Rogers’s theory was very influential. During the cold war (50’s & 60’s) between U.S./ U.S.S.R, US using this theory propagate ‘agricultural revolution’ in the Third World countries. Rogers’s theory became a training manual. Change agents around the world were brought to Michigan State University to learn the theory. During the cold war (50’s & 60’s) between U.S./ U.S.S.R, US using this theory propagate ‘agricultural revolution’ in the Third World countries. Rogers’s theory became a training manual. Change agents around the world were brought to Michigan State University to learn the theory.

Many of these people became academics in their home countries. Many of these people became academics in their home countries. This theory was very consistent with most findings from effect surveys and persuasion experiments, & very practical. This theory was very consistent with most findings from effect surveys and persuasion experiments, & very practical.

Limitations of this theory were that although innovations were adopted often times these innovation were not well understood or even desired or did not guarantee its long terms success (e.g. too mush fertilizers in India or complex machinery breaks down as soon the change agent left) Limitations of this theory were that although innovations were adopted often times these innovation were not well understood or even desired or did not guarantee its long terms success (e.g. too mush fertilizers in India or complex machinery breaks down as soon the change agent left)

STRENGTHS STRENGTHS Integrates large amount of empirical findings into useful theory. Integrates large amount of empirical findings into useful theory. Provides practical guide for information campaigns in US & abroad. Provides practical guide for information campaigns in US & abroad.

WEAKNESSES WEAKNESSES It is a liner and source dominated theory It is a liner and source dominated theory Underestimate the power of the media esp. the contemporary media Underestimate the power of the media esp. the contemporary media Stimulates adaptation by groups that don’t understand or want the innovations Stimulates adaptation by groups that don’t understand or want the innovations

D. Phnomenistic Theory (Reinforcement Theory) This theory reveals that media are rarely the sole cause of effects & are relatively powerless when compare with other social factors. This theory reveals that media are rarely the sole cause of effects & are relatively powerless when compare with other social factors.

Developed by Klapper (1960). Developed by Klapper (1960). He argued that media hardly had any direct effects & powerless when compare with other social & psychological factors such as social status, group members, attitudes, education etc. He argued that media hardly had any direct effects & powerless when compare with other social & psychological factors such as social status, group members, attitudes, education etc.

According to Klapper: According to Klapper: 1. Mass communication does not serve sufficient cause of audience effects. Effects are cause by other mediating factors and influences. 1. Mass communication does not serve sufficient cause of audience effects. Effects are cause by other mediating factors and influences. 2. The mediating factors are only a contributory agent but not a sole cause. 2. The mediating factors are only a contributory agent but not a sole cause.

Klapper’s argued that there are just too many barriers to media influence for drastic changes to occur except under very unusual circumstances Klapper’s argued that there are just too many barriers to media influence for drastic changes to occur except under very unusual circumstances

STRENGTH STRENGTH Combines impressive amount of research into convincing theory. Combines impressive amount of research into convincing theory. Highlight roles of mediating variables in mass communication process. Highlight roles of mediating variables in mass communication process. Refutes mass society notions Refutes mass society notions

WEAKNESSES WEAKNESSES Overstates the roles of mediating factors. Overstates the roles of mediating factors. Too accepting status quo position. Too accepting status quo position. Downplays reinforcements as important media effect. Downplays reinforcements as important media effect. Too specific of its own time. Too specific of its own time.

E. Mass Entertainment Theory This theory supports the idea that TV & other mass media entertain average people & thus performs a vital social function at extremely low cost. This theory supports the idea that TV & other mass media entertain average people & thus performs a vital social function at extremely low cost.

Mendelson’s (1966) argued that the influence of media were widely misunderstood. Mendelson’s (1966) argued that the influence of media were widely misunderstood. He blamed the critics of media for continuing this misconception for reasons of self interest & ignoring empirical research findings. He blamed the critics of media for continuing this misconception for reasons of self interest & ignoring empirical research findings.

TV entertainment did not disrupt high culture but rather give average people a more attractive alternative to operas or musical concerts. TV entertainment did not disrupt high culture but rather give average people a more attractive alternative to operas or musical concerts. A small number of people might suffer because they became addicted to TV entertainment. A small number of people might suffer because they became addicted to TV entertainment.

STRENGTH STRENGTH Stresses on media influence Stresses on media influence Provides explanation as why people seek entrainment from media. Provides explanation as why people seek entrainment from media. WEAKNESSES WEAKNESSES Too accepting the status quo Too accepting the status quo Paints negative picture of average people and their use of media. Paints negative picture of average people and their use of media.

F. Elite Pluralism This theory argued for political information in media serves little purpose except to inform the handful of people who are already well informed about politics & already engaged in political activity; they represent all others intelligently. This theory argued for political information in media serves little purpose except to inform the handful of people who are already well informed about politics & already engaged in political activity; they represent all others intelligently. Media have little ability to directly influence people. Media have little ability to directly influence people.

‘ELITE’ implies a political system in which power is ultimately in the hands of small group influential persons – a political elite. ‘ELITE’ implies a political system in which power is ultimately in the hands of small group influential persons – a political elite. ‘PLURALISM’ refers to cultural, social and political diversity. It implies a political system in which many diverse groups are given equal status & representation. ‘PLURALISM’ refers to cultural, social and political diversity. It implies a political system in which many diverse groups are given equal status & representation.

Berelson, Lazarsfeld & McPhee (1954) Berelson, Lazarsfeld & McPhee (1954) noted important inconsistencies between empirical observations of voters & the assumptions that classical democratic theory. Classical democratic theory assumed that everyone must be well informed & politically active. Classical democratic theory assumed that everyone must be well informed & politically active.

But the new perspective is that average people didn’t know or care about politics. Voting decisions were more likely to be based on personal influence by other who were close to them. People voted as their friends, family & coworkers told them to vote. But the new perspective is that average people didn’t know or care about politics. Voting decisions were more likely to be based on personal influence by other who were close to them. People voted as their friends, family & coworkers told them to vote.

The important factor was not the quality of the voting decisions but their own stability. The important factor was not the quality of the voting decisions but their own stability.

STRENGTH STRENGTH Explain the stable social & political system of U.S. Explain the stable social & political system of U.S. Based on lots of empirical data. Based on lots of empirical data. Well developed theory. Well developed theory.

WEAKNESS WEAKNESS Legitimizes undemocratic view of US politics. Legitimizes undemocratic view of US politics. The conclusion goes beyond empirical evidence. The conclusion goes beyond empirical evidence. Accepting the status quo. Accepting the status quo. Paint negative picture of average people. Paint negative picture of average people.

G. Power Elite Theory This theory argued US political power was not decentralized across a broad range of pluralistic society. But it was very centralized in a small group of military-industrial-complex leaders. This theory argued US political power was not decentralized across a broad range of pluralistic society. But it was very centralized in a small group of military-industrial-complex leaders.

The questions he posed were pointing to the fact that the Power Elite was in operation. The questions he posed were pointing to the fact that the Power Elite was in operation. These questions were as follows: These questions were as follows: Why so many minority groups gets so little help. Why so many minority groups gets so little help. Why did average people feels so powerless. Why did average people feels so powerless. Why did people choose to remain ignorant about politics. Why did people choose to remain ignorant about politics. Why did the same people serves over & over again as leaders. Why did the same people serves over & over again as leaders.

Why were the interest of the few often pursued at the expanse of average people. Why were the interest of the few often pursued at the expanse of average people. Why did political parties make no efforts to educate people about their interests of the few so often at the expanse of average people. Why did political parties make no efforts to educate people about their interests of the few so often at the expanse of average people. Why did the mass media tend to reinforced the status quo rather than inspired people take actions against pertinent issues of society’s concerned. Why did the mass media tend to reinforced the status quo rather than inspired people take actions against pertinent issues of society’s concerned.

In the US these issues surfaced a decade later as part of the broad based challenged to the American political system. In the US these issues surfaced a decade later as part of the broad based challenged to the American political system.