Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Chapter 4 Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; Any rental, lease, or lending of the program. Any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Body Growth Gain 50% in height from birth to age 1 Gain 50% in height from birth to age 1 75% by age 2 75% by age 2 Grow in spurts Grow in spurts gain “baby fat” until about 9 months, then get slimmer gain “baby fat” until about 9 months, then get slimmer girls slightly shorter, lighter than boys girls slightly shorter, lighter than boys RubberBall Productions

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Growth Trends Cephalocaudal “head to tail” “head to tail” Lower part of body grows later than the head. Lower part of body grows later than the head.Proximodistal “near to far” “near to far” Extremities grow later than head, chest, and trunk. Extremities grow later than head, chest, and trunk.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Neurons and Connective Fibers Figure 4.2

Development of the Brain By age 6, almost adult size. By age 6, almost adult size. Brain growth spurts: coincide with changes in cognitive behavior Brain growth spurts: coincide with changes in cognitive behavior Cerebellum, largest part of brain, divides into halves Cerebellum, largest part of brain, divides into halves Lateralization, specialties of each hemisphere; left: language and logical thinking; right: visual and spatial functions Lateralization, specialties of each hemisphere; left: language and logical thinking; right: visual and spatial functions Integration: groups of coordinated cells Integration: groups of coordinated cells Differentiation: each neuron becomes specialized Differentiation: each neuron becomes specialized

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Methods for Measuring Brain Functioning Electroencephalogram (EEG) Electroencephalogram (EEG) Event-related potentials (ERPs) Event-related potentials (ERPs) Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Positron emission tomography (PET) Positron emission tomography (PET) Near-infrared optical topography (NIROT) Near-infrared optical topography (NIROT)

Brain cells Neurons: nerve cells- send and receive information Glial cells: support and protect the neurons Glial cells: support and protect the neurons Myelination: coats the neural pathways, allows for efficient and fast signals to travel Myelination: coats the neural pathways, allows for efficient and fast signals to travel Reflex behavior: controlled by lower brain centers, involuntary (breathing, heart rate) Reflex behavior: controlled by lower brain centers, involuntary (breathing, heart rate) Plasticity: malleability, modification, specificities Plasticity: malleability, modification, specificities

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Regions of the Cerebral Cortex Figure 4.4

Development of the Brain Corpus Callosum, joins the two hemispheres with visual and spatial functions Corpus Callosum, joins the two hemispheres with visual and spatial functions Each cerebral hemisphere has four lobes: occipital (visual), parietal (touch sensations and spatial information and facilitates eye-hand coordination), temporal (hearing and language), frontal (higher functions, speech, reasoning) Each cerebral hemisphere has four lobes: occipital (visual), parietal (touch sensations and spatial information and facilitates eye-hand coordination), temporal (hearing and language), frontal (higher functions, speech, reasoning)

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Lateralization of Cerebral Cortex Left Hemisphere sensory information and control of right side of body sensory information and control of right side of body verbal abilities verbal abilities positive emotion positive emotion sequential, analytical processing sequential, analytical processing Right Hemisphere sensory information and control of left side of body sensory information and control of left side of body spatial abilities spatial abilities negative emotion negative emotion holistic, integrative processing holistic, integrative processing

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Brain Plasticity In infants and young children, parts of brain are not yet specialized. In infants and young children, parts of brain are not yet specialized. Recover better from brain injury Recover better from brain injury Language recovers better than spatial skills. Language recovers better than spatial skills. They still have some problems with complex mental skills. They still have some problems with complex mental skills. Older children, even adults, show some plasticity. Older children, even adults, show some plasticity. Dynamic Graphics

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Experience-expectant growth Experience-expectant growth ordinary experiences “expected” by brain to grow normally ordinary experiences “expected” by brain to grow normally Experience-dependent growth Experience-dependent growth additional growth as a result of specific learning experiences additional growth as a result of specific learning experiences Stimulation is vital when brain is growing rapidly. Dynamic Graphics Sensitive Periods in Brain Development

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Changing States of Arousal Sleep moves to an adult-like, night–day schedule during the first year. Sleep moves to an adult-like, night–day schedule during the first year. Sleep needs decline from 18 to 12 hours a day by age 2. Sleep needs decline from 18 to 12 hours a day by age 2. Affected by social environment, cultural values Affected by social environment, cultural values Photodisc

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Influences on Early Growth Heredity Heredity Nutrition Nutrition breast vs. bottle-feeding breast vs. bottle-feeding Malnutrition Malnutrition Emotional well-being Emotional well-being Problems can cause nonorganic failure to thrive. Problems can cause nonorganic failure to thrive. RubberBall Productions

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Benefits of Breastfeeding Provides the correct balance of fat and protein Provides the correct balance of fat and protein Ensures nutritional completeness Ensures nutritional completeness Helps ensure healthy physical growth Helps ensure healthy physical growth Protects against many diseases Protects against many diseases

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. TypesConsequences  marasmus  kwashiorkor  food insecurity  physical symptoms, learning problems  growth issues and weight problems  growth and learning problems Malnutrition

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Emotional Well-Being Nonorganic failure to thrive Nonorganic failure to thrive symptoms similar to marasmus symptoms similar to marasmus no biological cause no biological cause can be corrected if treated early can be corrected if treated early

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Steps of Classical Conditioning Figure 4.5

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Operant Conditioning Terms Reinforcer increases probability of behavior occurring again increases probability of behavior occurring again presenting desirable stimulus presenting desirable stimulus removing unpleasant stimulus removing unpleasant stimulusPunishment reduces probability of behavior occurring again reduces probability of behavior occurring again presenting unpleasant stimulus presenting unpleasant stimulus removing desirable stimulus removing desirable stimulus

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Figure 4.6 Using Habituation to Study Infant Memory and Knowledge

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Imitation Newborns have the ability to imitate. Newborns have the ability to imitate. reflex or voluntary capacity? reflex or voluntary capacity? Mirror neurons offer biological explanation. Mirror neurons offer biological explanation. Powerful means of learning Powerful means of learning Helps facilitate positive relationships Helps facilitate positive relationships Newborns have the ability to imitate. Newborns have the ability to imitate. reflex or voluntary capacity? reflex or voluntary capacity? Mirror neurons offer biological explanation. Mirror neurons offer biological explanation. Powerful means of learning Powerful means of learning Helps facilitate positive relationships Helps facilitate positive relationships Dynamic Graphics

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Motor Development: Sequence and Trends Gross-motor development Gross-motor development crawling, standing, and walking crawling, standing, and walking Fine-motor development Fine-motor development reaching and grasping reaching and grasping Sequence is fairly uniform, though individual rate of motor progress differs. Sequence is fairly uniform, though individual rate of motor progress differs.

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Motor Skills as Dynamic Systems Increasingly complex systems of action with each skill Increasingly complex systems of action with each skill Each new skill is joint product of: Each new skill is joint product of: CNS development CNS development body’s movement capacity body’s movement capacity child’s goals child’s goals environmental supports environmental supports

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Early Motor Skills Figure 4.8

Motor Development Fig. 5.3 Milestones in Gross Motor Development

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Cultural Variations in Motor Development Rates and patterns of development affected by: Rates and patterns of development affected by: early movement opportunities early movement opportunities environmental stimulation environmental stimulation child-rearing practices child-rearing practices FamilyLife

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Milestones of Reaching and Grasping Prereaching Prereaching Reaching Reaching with two hands, then one with two hands, then one Ulnar grasp Ulnar grasp adjust grip to object adjust grip to object move objects from hand to hand move objects from hand to hand Pincer grasp Pincer grasp FamilyLife

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Milestones of Reaching Figure 4.9

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Developments in Hearing 4–7 months sense of musical phrasing sense of musical phrasing 6–8 months “Screen out” sounds from non-native languages “Screen out” sounds from non-native languages 7–9 months recognize familiar words, natural phrasing in native language recognize familiar words, natural phrasing in native language

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Improvements in Vision Supported by rapid maturation of eyes and visual centers in brain Supported by rapid maturation of eyes and visual centers in brain Improvements Improvements 2 months: focus and color vision 2 months: focus and color vision 6 months: acuity, scanning, and tracking 6 months: acuity, scanning, and tracking 6–7 months: depth perception 6–7 months: depth perception FamilyLife

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Milestones in Depth Perception 3–4 weeks sensitivity to motion cues sensitivity to motion cues 2–3 months sensitivity to binocular cues sensitivity to binocular cues 6–7 months sensitivity to pictorial cues sensitivity to pictorial cues wariness of heights wariness of heights

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Discrimination of Faces Figure 4.10

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Milestones in Pattern Perception 1 month poor contrast sensitivity; prefer single, large simple patterns with high contrast poor contrast sensitivity; prefer single, large simple patterns with high contrast 2–3months can detect detail in complex patterns can detect detail in complex patterns scan internal features of patterns scan internal features of patterns 4months can detect patterns even if boundaries are not really present can detect patterns even if boundaries are not really present 12months can detect objects even if two-thirds of drawing is missing can detect objects even if two-thirds of drawing is missing

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Visual Cliff Figure 4.11

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Subjective Boundaries in Visual Patterns Figure 4.12

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Milestones in Face Perception Birth– 1 month prefer simple, facelike pattern prefer simple, facelike pattern 2–4 months prefer complex facial pattern to other complex patterns prefer complex facial pattern to other complex patterns can distinguish strange from familiar faces can distinguish strange from familiar faces prefer mother’s face over stranger prefer mother’s face over stranger 5–12 months can perceive emotional expressions on faces can perceive emotional expressions on faces

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Early Face Perception Figure 4.13

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Birth detect amodal sensory properties detect amodal sensory properties 3–4 months relate speech sounds to lip movement relate speech sounds to lip movement 4–6 months perceive unique face–voice pairings of unfamiliar adults perceive unique face–voice pairings of unfamiliar adults Milestones in Intermodal Perception

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Differentiation Theory Infants: search for invariant features of the environment search for invariant features of the environment note stable relationships between features note stable relationships between features visual patterns, intermodal relationships visual patterns, intermodal relationships gradually detect finer and finer features gradually detect finer and finer features differentiation differentiation

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Environment and Perceptual Differentiation Figure 4.14

Newborn Nutrition: most important factor for physical growth and development. Importance of antibodies. Failure to thrive: 4 to 8 months following birth (r/o nutritional disorders vs. neglect) Scheduling: putting baby on feeding schedule (4 hours); not recommended now as much. Scheduling: putting baby on feeding schedule (4 hours); not recommended now as much.

Recommended now: Comfort your baby: comfort baby when they cry comfort baby when they cry feed them when they are hungry feed them when they are hungry play with them when they are awake play with them when they are awake “spoil” them as much as you can! (studies show that baby must learn that they have an effect on their environment, and therefore control over their own experience. Important for cognitive and social development “spoil” them as much as you can! (studies show that baby must learn that they have an effect on their environment, and therefore control over their own experience. Important for cognitive and social development babies need to know that they can make things happen babies need to know that they can make things happen being responsive to baby being responsive to baby

Encouraging frequent associations between: crying and being picked up crying and being picked up sucking and obtaining nourishment sucking and obtaining nourishment gurgling and hearing another voice reply gurgling and hearing another voice reply Some evidence that babies who cannot predict if or how their behavior will affect their caregivers are slower to develop than those whose caregivers react to their demands with relevant actions. Some evidence that babies who cannot predict if or how their behavior will affect their caregivers are slower to develop than those whose caregivers react to their demands with relevant actions.

infants must experience the benefits of self- motivation infants must experience the benefits of self- motivation babies thrive where there are many opportunities to watch, touch, and manipulate things for themselves. babies thrive where there are many opportunities to watch, touch, and manipulate things for themselves. babies who are restricted in their play and put on rigid schedules from birth may be apathetic. babies who are restricted in their play and put on rigid schedules from birth may be apathetic. repeated frustration teaches them that their own actions do not matter. repeated frustration teaches them that their own actions do not matter.

The emergence of social smiling is a milestone because smiling serves the adaptive function of drawing adults to them. After about 6 months, generally friendly towards strangers. Between 6 – 8 months, stranger anxiety occurs. Separation protest (separation anxiety) appears at about the same age.