Classical Oration

 Structure in arguments defines which parts go where.  People don’t always agree about what parts an argument should include or what the arrangement should be.

 In arguments, a method of leading a reader to a logical conclusion must be employed: ◦ inductive reasoning ◦ deductive reasoning  In most arguments, these two structures work together.

Induction & Deduction

 The process of generalizing on the basis of a number of specific examples.  In making inductive arguments, first present the evidence and then the inductive conclusion.

Evidence: I get hives after eating crawdads. My mouth swells when I eat clams. Shrimp triggers my asthma. Conclusion: Shellfish makes me ill.

 A conclusion is reached by assuming a general principle (major premise) and then applying that principle to a specific case (minor premise). This forms a chain of reasoning called a syllogism.

Major Premise: Shellfish makes me ill. Minor Premise: Lobster is a type of shellfish Therefore: Lobster will make me ill.

 Most people shorten syllogisms by leaving out the middle term when it seems obvious.  Example: Since all shellfish makes me ill, eating lobster will make me ill. Syllogisms shortened this way are called enthymemes.

 Constructing sound inductive and deductive arguments and presenting them clearly will influence most audiences.  But arguments involve more than just tight reasoning.

 You will also need to: ◦ define claims, ◦ explain contexts, ◦ defend your assumptions, ◦ offer convincing evidence, ◦ deal with people who may disagree with you, ◦ and more.

An Ancient Greek and Roman Structure

 A sequence of six parts: ◦ Exordium ◦ Narratio ◦ Partitio ◦ Confirmatio ◦ Refutatio ◦ Peroratio Aristotle

 Win the attention and goodwill of an audience while introducing a subject or problem.

 Present the facts of the case, explaining what happened when, who is involved, and so on.  Puts an argument into context.

 Divide the subject, explaining what the claim is, what the key issues are, and in what order the subject will be treated.

 Offer detailed support for the claim, using both logical reasoning and factual evidence.

 Acknowledge and then refute opposing claims or evidence.

 Summarize the case and move the audience to action.

An Updated Version

 A five-part structure: ◦ Introduction ◦ Background ◦ Lines of argument ◦ Alternative arguments ◦ conclusion

 Gain the readers’ interest and willingness to listen  Establish your qualifications to write about the topic  Establish some common ground with the audience  Demonstrate that you’re fair and evenhanded  State your claim

 Present any necessary information, including personal narrative, that’s important to the argument

 Present good reasons, including logical and emotional appeals, in support of your claim

 Examine alternative points of view and opposing arguments  Note the advantages and disadvantages of these views  Explain why your view is better than others

 Summarize the argument  Elaborate the implications of your claim  Make clear what you want the audience to think or do  Reinforce your credibility and perhaps offer an emotional appeal

 Not every piece of rhetoric, past or present, follows the structure of the oration or includes all of its components.  But, you can likely identify some of its elements in successful arguments if you pay attention to their design.