What is a text?

A text is a sequence of paragraphs that represents an extended unit of speech.

According to De Beaugrande and Dressler, a text will be defined as a communicative occurrence which meets seven standards of textuality.

Text-centered notions: Cohesion Coherence User-centered notions: Intentionality Acceptability Informativity Situationality Intertextuality

Text-centered notions: cohesion Cohesion concerns the way in which the components of the surface text, i.e. the actual words we hear or see, are mutually connected within a sequence. Cohesion rests upon grammatical forms and conventions

Text-centered notions: coherence Coherence concerns the ways in which the meanings within a text (concepts, relations among them and their relations to the external world) are established and developed. Some of the major relations of coherence are logical sequences: cause-consequence (and so), condition- consequence (if), instrument-achievement (by), contrast (however), compatibility (and), etc.

Cohesion and coherence are text-centered notions, designating operations directed at the text materials.

User-centered notions Intentionality: the producer’s attitude aims at producing a set of occurrences which should constitute a cohesive and coherent text. Acceptability: it implies the receiver’s attitude that the set of occurrences should constitute a cohesive and coherent text.

Grice’s conversational maxims – Maxims of quantity – Make your contribution as informative as required. – Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. – Maxims of quality – Do not say what you believe to be false. – Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. – Maxim of relation – Be relevant. – Maxims of manner – Avoid obscurity of expression. – Avoid ambiguity. – Be brief. – Be orderly.

Maxim of quantity A: Where is the post office? B: Down the road, about 50 metres past the second left. vs B: Not far.

Maxim of relevance A: How are you doing in maths? B: Not too well, actually VS B: Sunday was a fine day to go to the beach!

Maxim of manner A: What did you think of that movie? B: I liked the storyline, but the ending was a real shock! VS B: It was interestingly done, sir.

Informativity concerns the extent to which the occurrences of the presented text are expected vs unexpected or known vs unknown/certain.

In language: the degree of informativity is inversely proportional to contextual probability: The sea is water The sea is water only in the sense that water is the dominant substance present. Actually, it is a solution of gases and salts in addition to vast numbers of living organisms...

Situationality concerns the factors which make a text relevant to a situation of occurrence connected with coherence and acceptability. Deictics, for instance, can be decoded only on the basis of situationality.

Intertextuality concerns the factors which make the utilization of one text dependent upon knowledge of one or more previously encountered texts: If you are on a diet, your question may be:To eat or not to eat If you are ready to any compromise, you can borrow Henry IV’s statement Paris is worth a mass.

Channel Oral texts Written texts Intent of the Communicator Various types of texts (procedural, expository, persuasive, narrative, descriptive)

Intent of the communicator Genre of texts: – Narrative – Procedural – Expository (Informative) – Persuasive (Hortatory) – Descriptive

When are they used? procedural text: gives instructions on how to do something. expository text: is used to explain something hortatory text (persuasive): is used to encourage or to get someone to do something. As a matter of fact, it is argumentation descriptive text: lists the characteristics of something. narrative text: account of events (novel, newspaper article, biography)

TEXT FORMS Text forms evolve and change Authentic text forms are often mixed According to modern studies, there may be even more text types. Nonetheless, practical suggestions tend to classify texts in 3 main types: