Chapter 6 Aquatic Biodiversity

Chapter Overview Questions  What are the basic types of aquatic life zones and what factors influence the kinds of life they contain?  What are the major types of saltwater life zones, and how do human activities affect them?  What are the major types of freshwater life zones, and how do human activities affect them?

Updates Online The latest references for topics covered in this section can be found at the book companion website. Log in to the book’s e-resources page at to access InfoTrac articles.  InfoTrac: Down the bayou: a marine biologist, a community, and the resolve to preserve an ocean's bounty. Taylor Sisk. Earth Island Journal, Autumn 2006 v21 i3 p27(6).  InfoTrac: A scourge of the '70s returns to Great Lakes. The Christian Science Monitor, March 30, 2006 p14.  InfoTrac: The fate of the ocean. Julia Whitty. Mother Jones, March-April 2006 v31 i2 p32(15).  National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: Fisheries  Amazon Conservation Association: Amazon Rivers Project

Core Case Study: Why Should We Care About Coral Reefs?  Coral reefs form in clear, warm coastal waters of the tropics and subtropics. Formed by massive colonies of polyps. Formed by massive colonies of polyps. Figure 6-1

Fig. 6-1a, p. 126

Fig. 6-1b, p. 126

Video: Florida Reefs PLAY VIDEO

Video: Reef Fish (Bahamas) PLAY VIDEO

Core Case Study: Why Should We Care About Coral Reefs?  Help moderate atmospheric temperature by removing CO 2 from the atmosphere.  Act as natural barriers that help protect 14% of the world’s coastlines from erosion by battering waves and storms.  Provide habitats for a variety of marine organisms.

Video: Beach Pollution  From ABC News, Environmental Science in the Headlines, 2005 DVD. PLAY VIDEO

AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS  Saltwater and freshwater aquatic life zones cover almost three-fourths of the earth’s surface Figure 6-2

Fig. 6-2, p. 127 Land–ocean hemisphereOcean hemisphere

AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS Figure 6-3

What Kinds of Organisms Live in Aquatic Life Zones?  Aquatic systems contain floating, drifting, swimming, bottom-dwelling, and decomposer organisms. Plankton: important group of weakly swimming, free-floating biota. Plankton: important group of weakly swimming, free-floating biota. Phytoplankton (plant), Zooplankton (animal), Ultraplankton (photosynthetic bacteria)Phytoplankton (plant), Zooplankton (animal), Ultraplankton (photosynthetic bacteria) Necton: fish, turtles, whales. Necton: fish, turtles, whales. Benthos: bottom dwellers (barnacles, oysters). Benthos: bottom dwellers (barnacles, oysters). Decomposers: breakdown organic compounds (mostly bacteria). Decomposers: breakdown organic compounds (mostly bacteria).

Life in Layers  Life in most aquatic systems is found in surface, middle, and bottom layers.  Temperature, access to sunlight for photosynthesis, dissolved oxygen content, nutrient availability changes with depth. Euphotic zone (upper layer in deep water habitats): sunlight can penetrate. Euphotic zone (upper layer in deep water habitats): sunlight can penetrate.

Animation: Ocean Provinces PLAY ANIMATION

SALTWATER LIFE ZONES  The oceans that occupy most of the earth’s surface provide many ecological and economic services. Figure 6-4

Fig. 6-4, p. 129 Natural Capital Climate moderation Food Animal and pet feed Pharmaceuticals Harbors and transportation routes Coastal habitats for humans Recreation Employment Oil and natural gas Minerals Building materials CO 2 absorption Nutrient cycling Scientific information Marine Ecosystems Ecological Services Economic Services Genetic resources and biodiversity Habitats and nursery areas Reduced storm impact (mangroves, barrier islands, coastal wetlands) Waste treatment

The Coastal Zone: Where Most of the Action Is  The coastal zone: the warm, nutrient-rich, shallow water that extends from the high-tide mark on land to the gently sloping, shallow edge of the continental shelf.  The coastal zone makes up less than 10% of the world’s ocean area but contains 90% of all marine species. Provides numerous ecological and economic services. Provides numerous ecological and economic services. Subject to human disturbance. Subject to human disturbance.

The Coastal Zone Figure 6-5

Fig. 6-5, p. 130 Darkness Twilight Photosynthesis Sun Continental shelf Estuarine Zone High tide Low tide Coastal Zone Bathyal Zone Euphotic Zone Abyssal Zone Sea level Open Sea

Marine Ecosystems  Scientists estimate that marine systems provide $21 trillion in goods and services per year – 70% more than terrestrial ecosystems. Figure 6-4

Fig. 6-6, p. 130

Estuaries and Coastal Wetlands: Centers of Productivity  Estuaries include river mouths, inlets, bays, sounds, salt marshes in temperate zones and mangrove forests in tropical zones. Figure 6-7

Fig. 6-7a, p. 131 All consumers and producers to decomposers Secondary to higher-level consumer Primary to secondary consumer Producer to primary consumer Soft-shelled clam Bacteria Clamworm Zooplankton and small crustaceans Smelt Marsh Periwinkle Phytoplankton Herring gulls Snowy Egret Peregrine falcon Cordgrass Short-billed Dowitcher

Fig. 6-7b, p. 131

Mangrove Forests  Are found along about 70% of gently sloping sandy and silty coastlines in tropical and subtropical regions. Figure 6-8

Estuaries and Coastal Wetlands: Centers of Productivity  Estuaries and coastal marshes provide ecological and economic services. Filter toxic pollutants, excess plant nutrients, sediments, and other pollutants. Filter toxic pollutants, excess plant nutrients, sediments, and other pollutants. Reduce storm damage by absorbing waves and storing excess water produced by storms and tsunamis. Reduce storm damage by absorbing waves and storing excess water produced by storms and tsunamis. Provide food, habitats and nursery sites for many aquatic species. Provide food, habitats and nursery sites for many aquatic species.

Rocky and Sandy Shores: Living with the Tides  Organisms experiencing daily low and high tides have evolved a number of ways to survive under harsh and changing conditions. Gravitational pull by moon and sun causes tides. Gravitational pull by moon and sun causes tides. Intertidal Zone: area of shoreline between low and high tides. Intertidal Zone: area of shoreline between low and high tides.

Rocky and Sandy Shores: Living with the Tides  Organisms in intertidal zone develop specialized niches to deal with daily changes in: Temperature Temperature Salinity Salinity Wave action Wave action Figure 6-9

Fig. 6-9, p. 132 Rocky Shore Beach Sea star Hermit crab Shore crab Anemone Sea urchin Sculpin Nudibranch Low tide Monterey flatworm KelpSea lettuce Barnacles Mussel Periwinkle High tide

Fig. 6-9, p. 132 Barrier Beach Peanut worm Beach flea Tiger Beetle Dwarf Olive Clam High tide Ghost Shrimp Mole Shrimp Sandpiper Moon snail Sand dollar White sand macoma Blue crab Low tide Silversides

Barrier Islands  Low, narrow, sandy islands that form offshore from a coastline.  Primary and secondary dunes on gently sloping sandy barrier beaches protect land from erosion by the sea. Figure 6-10

Fig. 6-10, p. 133 OceanBeach Primary Dune Secondary Dune TroughBack Dune Bay or Lagoon Limited recreation and walkways Intensive recreation, no building Intensive recreation Most suitable for development Taller shrubs and trees Taller shrubs Grasses or shrubs No direct passage or building No direct passage or building No filling Bay shore

Threats to Coral Reefs: Increasing Stresses  Biologically diverse and productive coral reefs are being stressed by human activities. Figure 6-11

Fig. 6-11, p. 134 All consumer and producers to decomposers Secondary to higher-level consumer Primary to secondary consumer Producer to primary consumer Green sea turtle Sea nettle Blue tangs Fairy basslet Sergeant major Brittle star Banded coral shrimp Algae Phytoplankton Coney Moray eel Blackcap basslet Bacteria Zooplankton Sponges Symbiotic algae Hard corals Parrot fish Gray reef shark

Threats to Coral Reefs: Increasing Stresses Figure 6-12

Fig. 6-12, p. 135 Ocean warming Soil erosion Algae growth from fertilizer runoff Mangrove destruction Bleaching Rising sea levels Increased UV exposure Damage from anchors Damage from fishing and diving Natural Capital Degradation Coral Reefs

Biological Zones in the Open Sea: Light Rules  Euphotic zone: brightly lit surface layer. Nutrient levels low, dissolved O 2 high, photosynthetic activity. Nutrient levels low, dissolved O 2 high, photosynthetic activity.  Bathyal zone: dimly lit middle layer. No photosynthetic activity, zooplankton and fish live there and migrate to euphotic zone to feed at night. No photosynthetic activity, zooplankton and fish live there and migrate to euphotic zone to feed at night.  Abyssal zone: dark bottom layer. Very cold, little dissolved O 2. Very cold, little dissolved O 2.

Effects of Human Activities on Marine Systems: Red Alert  Human activities are destroying or degrading many ecological and economic services provided by the world’s coastal areas. Figure 6-13

Fig. 6-13, p. 136 Half of coastal wetlands lost to agriculture and urban development Over one-third of mangrove forests lost to agriculture, development, and aquaculture shrimp farms Beaches eroding because of coastal development and rising sea level Ocean bottom habitats degraded by dredging and trawler fishing At least 20% of coral reefs severely damaged and 30– 50% more threatened Natural Capital Degradation Marine Ecosystems

FRESHWATER LIFE ZONES  Freshwater life zones include: Standing (lentic) water such as lakes, ponds, and inland wetlands. Standing (lentic) water such as lakes, ponds, and inland wetlands. Flowing (lotic) systems such as streams and rivers. Flowing (lotic) systems such as streams and rivers. Figure 6-14

Fig. 6-14, p. 136 Food Drinking water Irrigation water Hydroelectricity Transportation corridors Recreation Employment Climate moderation Nutrient cycling Waste treatment Flood control Groundwater recharge Habitats for many species Genetic resources and biodiversity Scientific information Economic Services Freshwater Systems Ecological Services Natural Capital

Lakes: Water-Filled Depressions  Lakes are large natural bodies of standing freshwater formed from precipitation, runoff, and groundwater seepage consisting of: Littoral zone (near shore, shallow, with rooted plants). Littoral zone (near shore, shallow, with rooted plants). Limnetic zone (open, offshore area, sunlit). Limnetic zone (open, offshore area, sunlit). Profundal zone (deep, open water, too dark for photosynthesis). Profundal zone (deep, open water, too dark for photosynthesis). Benthic zone (bottom of lake, nourished by dead matter). Benthic zone (bottom of lake, nourished by dead matter).

Animation: Lake Zonation PLAY ANIMATION

Lakes: Water-Filled Depressions  During summer and winter in deep temperate zone lakes the become stratified into temperature layers and will overturn. This equalizes the temperature at all depths. This equalizes the temperature at all depths. Oxygen is brought from the surface to the lake bottom and nutrients from the bottom are brought to the top. Oxygen is brought from the surface to the lake bottom and nutrients from the bottom are brought to the top.  What causes this overturning?

Animation: Lake Turnover PLAY ANIMATION

Lakes: Water-Filled Depressions Figure 6-15

Fig. 6-15, p. 137 Pond snail Benthic zone Profundal zone Limnetic zone Sunlight Blue-winged teal Muskrat Plankton Bloodworms Northern pike Yellow perch Diving beetle Littoral zone Painted turtle Green frog

Effects of Plant Nutrients on Lakes: Too Much of a Good Thing  Plant nutrients from a lake’s environment affect the types and numbers of organisms it can support. Figure 6-16

Effects of Plant Nutrients on Lakes: Too Much of a Good Thing  Plant nutrients from a lake’s environment affect the types and numbers of organisms it can support. Oligotrophic (poorly nourished) lake: Usually newly formed lake with small supply of plant nutrient input. Oligotrophic (poorly nourished) lake: Usually newly formed lake with small supply of plant nutrient input. Eutrophic (well nourished) lake: Over time, sediment, organic material, and inorganic nutrients wash into lakes causing excessive plant growth. Eutrophic (well nourished) lake: Over time, sediment, organic material, and inorganic nutrients wash into lakes causing excessive plant growth.

Animation: Trophic Nature of Lakes PLAY ANIMATION

Effects of Plant Nutrients on Lakes: Too Much of a Good Thing  Cultural eutrophication: Human inputs of nutrients from the atmosphere and urban and agricultural areas can accelerate the eutrophication process. Human inputs of nutrients from the atmosphere and urban and agricultural areas can accelerate the eutrophication process.

Freshwater Streams and Rivers: From the Mountains to the Oceans  Water flowing from mountains to the sea creates different aquatic conditions and habitats. Figure 6-17

Fig. 6-17, p. 139 Source Zone Rain and snow Lake Glacier Rapids Waterfall Tributary Flood plain Oxbow lake Salt marsh Delta Deposited sediment Ocean Sediment Water Floodplain Zone Transition Zone

Case Study: Dams, Wetlands, Hurricanes, and New Orleans  Dams and levees have been built to control water flows in New Orleans.  Reduction in natural flow has destroyed natural wetlands. Causes city to lie below sea-level (up to 3 meters). Causes city to lie below sea-level (up to 3 meters). Global sea levels have risen almost 0.3 meters since Global sea levels have risen almost 0.3 meters since 1900.

Freshwater Inland Wetlands: Vital Sponges  Inland wetlands act like natural sponges that absorb and store excess water from storms and provide a variety of wildlife habitats. Figure 6-18

Freshwater Inland Wetlands: Vital Sponges  Filter and degrade pollutants.  Reduce flooding and erosion by absorbing slowly releasing overflows.  Help replenish stream flows during dry periods.  Help recharge ground aquifers.  Provide economic resources and recreation.

Impacts of Human Activities on Freshwater Systems  Dams, cities, farmlands, and filled-in wetlands alter and degrade freshwater habitats. Dams, diversions and canals have fragmented about 40% of the world’s 237 large rivers. Dams, diversions and canals have fragmented about 40% of the world’s 237 large rivers. Flood control levees and dikes alter and destroy aquatic habitats. Flood control levees and dikes alter and destroy aquatic habitats. Cities and farmlands add pollutants and excess plant nutrients to streams and rivers. Cities and farmlands add pollutants and excess plant nutrients to streams and rivers. Many inland wetlands have been drained or filled for agriculture or (sub)urban development. Many inland wetlands have been drained or filled for agriculture or (sub)urban development.

Impacts of Human Activities on Freshwater Systems  These wetlands have been ditched and drained for cropland conversion. Figure 6-19

Video: Elephant Seals PLAY VIDEO

Video: Giant Clam PLAY VIDEO

Video: River Flyover PLAY VIDEO

Video: Schooling Fish PLAY VIDEO

Video: Sea Anemones PLAY VIDEO

Video: Seal Lions PLAY VIDEO

Video: Sting Rays PLAY VIDEO