Myers PSYCHOLOGY Seventh Edition in Modules Thinking

Thinking  Cognition  mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating  Cognitive Psychologists  study these mental activities  concept formation  problem solving  decision making  judgment formation

Thinking  Concept  mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people  Prototype  mental image or best example of a category  matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin) 1.Create your own Concept formation

Problem Solving Unscramble S P L O Y O C H Y G  Trial & Error  Insight  sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem  contrasts with strategy-based solutions  Algorithm  all 907,208 combinations  Heuristic  throw out all YY combinations  other heuristics?

Problem Solving  Algorithm  methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem  contrasts with the usually speedier–but also more error- prone--use of heuristics

 Heuristic  simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently  usually speedier than algorithms  more error-prone than algorithms

Barriers  Loss Aversion  Tendency to make choices to avoid loss to more than to risk gain.  Playing the lottery – we are much more likely to buy a ticket when we think about our chances of winning – NOT loosing  Confirmation Bias  tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions  Example: If you believe that boys fight more than girls, then when you are watching children play you are more likely to selectively pay attention to the information to confirm your pre-existing belief.

The Matchstick Problem  How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?

The Three-Jugs Problem  Using jugs A, B, and C, with the capacities shown, how would you measure out the volumes indicated?

The Candle-Mounting Problem  Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?

Barriers  Mental Set  tendency to approach a problem in a particular way  especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem

Fixation  inability to see a problem from a new perspective  Functional Fixedness  tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions  impediment to problem solving  Example: You want to open a bottle but you can’t find a cork screw.

The Matchstick Problem  Solution to the matchstick problem

The Three-Jugs Problem  Solution: a) All seven problems can be solved by the equation shown in (a): B - A - 2C = desired volume.  b) But simpler solutions exist for problems 6 and 7, such as A - C for problem 6.

The Candle-Mounting Problem  Solving this problem requires recognizing that a box need not always serve as a container

Heuristics  Availability Heuristic  estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory  if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common  Example: airplane crash

Heuristics  Representativeness Heuristic  judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes  may lead one to ignore other relevant information  Example: Stereotyping

Hindsight Bias Tendency to overestimate your knowledge of a particular event or item after you know the outcome.Tendency to overestimate your knowledge of a particular event or item after you know the outcome. Example: Trivial PursuitExample: Trivial Pursuit

Cognitive Dissonance Reduction CD – the uncomfortable tension that comes with holding two conflicting thoughts at the same time.CD – the uncomfortable tension that comes with holding two conflicting thoughts at the same time. We have to change either the belief or attitude in order to reduce the tension.We have to change either the belief or attitude in order to reduce the tension. Example (The Fox and the Grapes): a fox sees some high-hanging grapes and wishes to eat them. When the fox is unable to think of a way to reach them, he surmises that the grapes are probably not worth eating, as they must not be ripe or that they are sour.Example (The Fox and the Grapes): a fox sees some high-hanging grapes and wishes to eat them. When the fox is unable to think of a way to reach them, he surmises that the grapes are probably not worth eating, as they must not be ripe or that they are sour. –This example follows a pattern: one desires something, finds it unattainable, and reduces one's dissonance by criticizing it.

Overconfidence  tendency to be more confident than correct  tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgments  Example: Everybody thinks that they are better than average drivers.

Framing  the way an issue is posed  how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments  Example: What is the best way to market ground beef--as 25% fat or 75% lean?

Belief Perseverance  clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited  Example: First impressions count!!!  Belief Bias  the tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning  sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid or valid conclusions seem invalid

Artificial Intelligence  Artificial Intelligence  designing and programming computer systems  to do intelligent things  to simulate human thought processes  intuitive reasoning  learning  understanding language

Artificial Intelligence  Computer Neural Networks  computer circuits that mimic the brain’s interconnected neural cells  performing tasks  learning to recognize visual patterns  learning to recognize smells