CHAPTER 8 LIFE AT THE TURN OF THE 20 TH CENTURY

SECTION 1 SCIENCE AND URBAN LIFE

TECHNOLOGY AND CITY LIFE TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING ADVANCES SETUP THE GROWTH OF MODERN AMERICAN CITIES BY THE TURN OF THE 20 TH CENTURY 4 OUT OF EVERY 10 AMERICANS' LIVED IN CITIES SKY SCRAPERS – THE INVENTION OF ELEVATORS AND INTERNAL STEEL SKELETONS IN BUILDINGS LED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF SKYSCRAPERS LOUIS SULLIVAN DESIGNED THE 10 STORY WAINWRIGHT BUILDING IN SAINT LOUIS SKYSCRAPERS WERE AMERICAS GREATEST CONTRIBUTION TO ARCHITECT DANIEL BURNHAM DEVELOPED THE FLATIRON BUILDING IN NEW YOUR THAT WAS SLENDER AND 285 FEET TALL AND UTILIZED THE SMALL SPACE IN NEW YORK CITY

TECHNOLOGY AND CITY LIFE ELECTRIC TRANSIT – ELECTRIC STREET CARS (TROLLEYS) REPLACED HORSES PULLING CARS RICHMOND, VIRGINIA WAS THE 1 ST AMERICAN CITY TO ELECTRIFY IT’S STREET CARS IN 1888 NEW YORK AND OTHER TOWNS BUILT UNDERGROUND SUBWAYS THAT TRANSPORTED MASS AMOUNTS OF PEOPLE SOME CITIES BUILT THEIR STREET CARS WELL ABOVE STREET LEVEL (“EL” TRAINS SHORT FOR ELEVATED TRAINS)

TECHNOLOGY AND CITY LIFE STEEL CABLE SUSPENSION BRIDGES BROUGHT CITY SECTIONS TOGETHER THAT WERE PREVIOUSLY SEPARATED BY WATER WAYS (BROOKLYN BRIDGE) URBAN PARKS WERE CREATED TO GIVE PEOPLE IN THE CITY RECREATIONAL AREAS TO GO TO FREDERICK LAW OLMSTEAD LED THIS MOVEMENT AND DREW UP A PLAN FOR “GREENSWARD” OR CENTRAL PARK IN THE 1870’S HE DEVELOPED MANY PARKS AROUND THE COUNTRY IN MAJOR CITIES WITH CITIES BOOMING FOR EXAMPLE CHICAGO GREW FROM 30,000 TO 300,000 FROM 1850 – 1870 PEOPLE HAD TO RE-PLAN THE STRUCTURE OF THE CITY IN ORDER FOR IT TO BE EFFECTIVE FOR PEOPLE

NEW TECHNOLOGIES MANY NEW TECHNOLOGIES HELPED SPURN GROWTH NATIONWIDE PRINTING- DUE TO THE LITERACY RATE IN AMERICA GROWING TO AROUND 90% BY 1890 PRINTING PRESSES BECAME A BIG BUSINESS AND PEOPLE BEGAN TO PRINT DOCUMENTS NATIONWIDE KEEPING AMERICANS’ INFORMED OF EVENTS NATIONWIDE AIRPLANES- ORVILLE AND WILBUR WRIGHT DEVELOPED THE ABILITY TO FLY AND HAD THEIR 1 ST SUCCESSFUL FLIGHT IN KITTY HAWK, NORTH CAROLINA WHICH WENT 120 FEET AND LASTED 12 SECONDS

NEW TECHNOLOGIES PHOTOGRAPHY EXPLOSION- GEORGE EASTMAN MADE DEVELOPING PICTURES EASIER ALLOWING PEOPLE TO TAKE MORE PICTURES ANYWHERE ANYTIME AS OPPOSED TO HAVING TO DEVELOP THE PICTURES ON SITE EASTMAN INTRODUCED THE KODAK CAMERA ALLOWING PEOPLE TO TAKE A ROLL OF PICTURES AND THEN SEND THEM OFF TO GET DEVELOPED AT A LAB. THIS CAMERA WAS EASY TO CARRY AROUND, HOLD AND EASY TO GET FILM DEVELOPED. AN AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHER WAS THE 1 ST TO CATCH THE 1 ST FLIGHT ON FILM IN KITTY HAWK

SECTION 2 EXPANDING PUBLIC EDUCATION

PEOPLE BEGAN TO SEE PUBLIC EDUCATION AS THE KEY TO ADVANCING SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES BETWEEN 1865 AND 1895 STATES BEGAN PASSING LAWS REQUIRING 12 TO 16 WEEKS ANNUALLY OF SCHOOL ATTENDANCE FOR CHILDREN BETWEEN THE AGES OF 8 AND 14 THE EMPHASIS WAS ON READING, WRITING AND ARITHMETIC 62% OF WHITE CHILDREN ATTENDED SCHOOLS 34% OF BLACK CHILDREN ATTENDED SCHOOLS THESE NUMBERS WERE PRETTY CONSTANT UNTIL THE 1940’S WHEN MORE BLACK STUDENTS BEGAN ATTENDING SCHOOLS

EXPANDING PUBLIC EDUCATION HIGH SCHOOLS BECAME A MORE IMPORTANT PART OF EDUCATION AS BUSINESS LEADERS SAW IT AS AN OPPORTUNITY TO DEVELOP FUTURE BUSINESS LEADERS. BY EARLY 1900 MORE THAN HALF A MILLION STUDENTS ATTENDED HIGH SCHOOLS IN AMERICA THE CURRICULUM COVERED SCIENCE, CIVICS, AND SOCIAL STUDIES ALONG WITH THE PREVIOUS SUBJECTS BY 1910 ONLY ABOUT 3% OF BLACK STUDENTS ATTENDED HIGH SCHOOLS

EXPANDING PUBLIC EDUCATION IMMIGRANTS WERE HIGHLY ENCOURAGED TO ATTEND SCHOOL JEWISH IMMIGRANTS WERE THE MAJORITY OF IMMIGRANTS IN AMERICA AS THEY WERE FLEEING POVERTY AND OPPRESSION JEWISH IMMIGRANTS LIKED THE FREE EDUCATION IN AMERICAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS AND THIS WAS A PROCESS OF AMERICANIZING THE IMMIGRANTS IN THE SCHOOLS SOME IMMIGRANTS RESENTED THE EMPHASIS ON ENGLISH AND RELIGION

EXPANDING PUBLIC EDUCATION THOUSANDS OF ADULT IMMIGRANTS ATTENDED NIGHT SCHOOL IN ORDER OT LEARN ENGLISH AND QUALIFY FOR AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP EMPLOYERS OFFERED DAY CLASSES IN ORDER TO AMERICANIZE IMMIGRANTS INTO AMERICAN CULTURE

EXPANDING HIGHER EDUCATION BETWEEN 1880 AND 1920 AMERICANS’ COLLEGE ENROLLMENT MORE THAN QUADRUPLED INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT CHANGED THE NATIONS EDUCATIONAL NEEDS. PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS IN LAW AND MEDICINE WERE ESTABLISHED PRIVATE COLLEGES REQUIRED ENTRANCE EXAMS MOST STATE UNIVERSITIES ALLOWED THE HIGH SCHOOL DIPLOMA TO BE THE ADMITTANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR ENROLLMENT

EXPANDING PUBLIC EDUCATION THE FREEDMEN’S BUREAU HELPED ESTABLISH BLACK COLLEGE BETWEEN THEY FOUNDED HOWARD, ATLANTA, AND FISK UNIVERSITIES BY 1900 OUT OF 9 MILLION BLACKS IN POPULATION ONLY 3880 WERE ENROLLED IN COLLEGES OR PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS BOOKER T. WASHINGTON BELIEVED THAT RACISM WOULD END ONCE BLACKS ACQUIRED USEFUL LABOR SKILLS AND PROVED THEIR ECONOMIC VALUE TO SOCIETY WASHINGTON GRADUATED FROM VIRGINIA’S HAMPTON INSTITUTE W.E.B. DUBOIS WAS THE FIRST BLACK TO RECEIVE A DOCTORATE FROM HARVARD IN 1895 HE OPPOSED TO WASHINGTON’S THEORY AND FORMED THE NIAGARA MOVEMENT WHICH PUSHED BLACKS TO THE LIBERAL ARTS COMMUNITY IN ORDER TO DEVELOP HIGHLY EDUCATED LEADERS IN THEIR OWN COMMUNITY

SECTION 3 SEGREGATION AND DISCRIMINATION

AFRICAN AMERICANS FIGHT LEGAL DISCRIMINATION IN THE EARLY 20 TH CENTURY SOUTHERN STATES PUT REQUIREMENTS ON VOTING THAT MADE IT MORE DIFFICULT FOR BLACKS TO VOTE THEY MADE PEOPLE PASS A LITERACY TEST IN ORDER TO VOTE AND WOULD GIVE DIFFERENT TESTS TO DIFFERENT PEOPLE THEY WERE EVEN KNOWN TO GIVE BLACKS TESTS IN FOREIGN LANGUAGES THEY ALSO PUT INTO PLACE A POLL TAX (AN ANNUAL TAX THAT MUST BE PAID IN ORDER TO BE ELIGIBLE TO VOTE) THEY ALSO PUT IN A GRANDFATHER CLAUSE THAT WOULD EXEMPT WHITE VOTERS FROM PAYING THE POLL TAX OR PASSING THE LITERACY TEST IF THEIR FATHER OR GRANDFATHER WERE ELIGIBLE TO VOTE IN 1867 THEY CHOSE 1867 BECAUSE BEFORE THAT DATE FREED SLAVES WERE NOT ELIGIBLE TO VOTE

AFRICAN AMERICANS FIGHT LEGAL DISCRIMINATION SOUTHERN STATES BEGAN TO PASS SEGREGATION LAWS IN THE 1870’S AND 80’S THESE LAWS WERE KNOWN AS JIM CROW LAWS NAMED AFTER A POPULAR OLD MINSTREL SONG. SEGREGATION WAS PUT INTO PLACE IN SCHOOLS, HOSPITALS, PARKS, AND TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS

TURN-OF-THE-CENTURY RACE RELATIONS THERE WERE FORMAL (OFFICIAL) LAWS AND INFORMAL (UNOFFICIAL BUT UNDERSTOOD) THAT PROMOTED SEGREGATION THESE WERE CUSTOMS AND IDEALS THAT MADE BLACKS SECOND CLASS CITIZENS BLACKS AND WHITES WERE NOT ALLOWED TO SHAKE HANDS BECAUSE THAT IS A SYMBOL OF EQUALITY BLACKS HAD TO YIELD THE SIDEWALK TO WHITES BLACK MEN ALWAYS HAD TO REMOVE THEIR HAT TO WHITES AS WELL

TURN-OF-THE-CENTURY RACE RELATIONS BOOKER T WASHINGTON AND OTHER MODERATE REFORMER BLACKS EARNED THE RESPECT OF WHITES BY SUGGESTING THEY WORK TOGETHER FOR EQUALITY BLACKS WHO DID NOT FOLLOW THE ETIQUETTE WERE DEALT WITH HARSHLY OFTEN TIMES BEING LYNCHED BETWEEN 1882 AND 1892 MORE THAN 1400 BLACKS WERE SHOT, HUNG, OR BURNED WITHOUT TRIAL IN THE SOUTH MANY OF THEM MOVED NORTH TO AVOID RACISM AND GAIN JOBS BUT WHEN THEY MOVED UP NORTH THEY FOUND VERY SIMILAR SITUATIONS OUT WEST ALL NON WHITES FACED A LOT OF DISCRIMINATION AS WELL

DISCRIMINATION IN THE WEST MEXICANS, ASIANS, AND NATIVE AMERICANS’ POPULATED THE WEST ALONG WITH WHITES MEXICANS WERE VERY PROMINENT WORKERS IN THE WEST BECAUSE THE PROXIMITY OF MEXICO TO AMERICA AS WELL AS THEIR ABILITY TO WORK IN THE CLIMATE AND AT A MUCH LOWER PAY GRADE THEY WERE VERY IMPORTANT TO THE GROWTH OF THE RAILROAD, MINES, AND AGRICULTURE IN THE WEST MEXICANS BECAME VICTIMS OF DEBT PEONAGE 9R BECOMING A SLAVE UNTIL THEY PAID OFF THEIR DEBTS 1911 THE SUPREME COURT DECLARED INVOLUNTARY DEBT PEONAGE UNCONSTITUTIONAL BY THE 1880 THERE WERE MORE THAN 100,000 CHINESE IMMIGRANTS IN THE WEST AND THEY TOOK UP A LARGE PORTION OF THE WORK FORCE AS CHINESE TRIED TO PUSH INTO SOCIETY THERE WAS A LOT OF OPPOSITION TO CHINESE SEGREGATION

SECTION 4 THE DAWN OF MASS CULTURE

AMERICAN LEISURE AT THE END OF THE 19 TH CENTURY AMERICANS’ BEGAN TO FIGHT OFF ROUGH CITY WORKING LIFE BY FLOCKING TO LEISURE ACTIVITIES IN THEIR OFF TIME AMUSEMENT PARKS WERE A HUGE SUCCESS THE MOST PROMINENT ONE WAS CONEY ISLAND CREATED IN NEW YORK IN 1884 BICYCLING, SPORTS, AND THEATRE ALL BECAME POPULAR IN THIS TIME PERIOD AS WELL

AMERICAN LEISURE MANY CITIES BEGAN SETTING ASIDE LAND FOR AMUSEMENT PARKS AND PLAYGROUNDS FOR PEOPLE IN THE LATE 1800’S BICYCLES BECAME POPULAR WITH AMERICANS’ AND PROVIDED LEISURE ACTIVITY, EXERCISE, AND TRANSPORTATION ALL IN ONE ACTIVITY TENNIS WAS A SPORT AMERICANS’ FLOCKED TO AT THE TURN OF THE CENTURY AS IT WAS CREATED IN NORTH WALES IN 1873 AND A YEAR LATER HAD MADE IT’S WAY TO AMERICA HERSHEY CHOCOLATE BAR WAS CREATED IN 1900 COCA COLA WAS CREATED IN 1886 (ORIGINALLY TO FIX PEOPLE OF HEADACHES) NOW IT WAS A LEISURE DRINK FOR PEOPLE SPECTATOR SPORTS BECAME POPULAR (BOXING AND BASEBALL) THESE SPORTS EVENTUALLY BECAME BIG BUSINESS THE 1 ST PROFESSIONAL TEAM TO TRAVEL AROUND AND PLAY WAS THE CINCINNATI RED STOCKINGS “REDS” BY 1876 THE NATIONAL LEAGUE WAS FORMED AS MULTIPLE TEAMS BEGAN TO TRAVEL AROUND TO PLAY 1903 THE 1 ST WORLD SERIES WAS PLAYED AS THE BOSTON PILGRIMS BEAT THE PITTSBURGH PIRATES

THE SPREAD OF MASS CULTURE AMERICA BECAME A MORE LITERATE COUNTRY THERE FORE NEWSPAPERS POPPED UP NATIONWIDE JOSEPH PULITZER A HUNGARIAN IMMIGRANT WHO HAD BOUGHT THE NEW YORK WORLD IN 1883 PIONEERED SEVERAL INNOVATIONS LIKE A LARGE SUNDAY EDITION WITH COMICS, SPORTS, WOMEN’S NEWS, ETC. PULITZER WAS IN COMPETITION WITH WILLIAM RANDOLPH HEARST WHO RAN THE NEW YORK MORNING JOURNAL BOTH PAPERS THROUGH SENSATIONALISM EVENTUALLY TOPPED 1 MILLION PAPERS A DAY NATIONWIDE

THE SPREAD OF MASS CULTURE BY 1900 MOST CITIES IN AMERICA HAD AN ART GALLERY LIBRARIES POPPED UP UP IN EVERY CITY ACROSS AMERICA IN ORDER TO PROMOTE LITERACY AND ARTS FICTION STORIES BECAME POPULAR AS WELL MARK TWAIN WAS A LEAD AUTHOR OF THE TIME PERIOD AS HE WROTE TOM SAWYER AND HUCKLEBERRY FINN

NEW WAYS TO SELL GOODS WITH CITIES GROWING SHOPPING CENTERS BEGAN TO POP UP WITH THE EARLIEST SHOPPING CENTER OPENING IN CLEVELAND, OHIO IN 1890 MARSHALL FIELD BROUGHT THE IDEA OF THE DEPARTMENT STORE TO AMERICA IN HIS FIRST STORE WAS FOCUSED ON LADIES NEEDS AND WANTS CHAIN STORES ALSO BECAME POPULAR AS F.W. WOOLWORTH OPEN THE 1 ST CHAIN STORE IN 1870 MEANING THAT YOU COULD HAVE STORES WITH THE SAME GOODS AND PRICES AT MANY DIFFERENT LOCATIONS WOOLWORTH’S WAS THE 1 ST OF THESE TYPE STORES. BY 1911 THERE WERE 596 WOOLWORTH STORES NATIONWIDE MONTGOMERY WARD AND SEARS ROEBUCK BROUGHT GOODS TO THE CONSUMER BY WAY OF A CATALOG. BY MILLION AMERICANS’ SHOPPED BY MAIL