How do people acquire/learn a language?

 Behaviorists (see Skinner) : learning a language is a process that involves input, imitation, and habit formation through repetition.  The one-year old child…..  AND: Grammar cannot be learned solely by repetition and habit formation. Ex. The verb brang, branged in I branged it!

Innatists (see Chomsky): humans learn language because it is in their nature to do so. A Language Acquisition Device (LAD): an innate predisposition for language learning. Human can discover the patterns of language on the basis of their environment. The Hypothesis Testing Process and Scaffolding. Vygotsky: the zone of proximal development.

 Hypothesis 1: The Acquisition-Learning Distinction  Subconscious, informal, implicit learning VS  Conscious, formal, explicit classroom learning  Hypothesis 2: The Natural Order of Acquisition  In the average, the language acquirer follows predictable steps Ex. English: progressive marker → plural marker → third person singular→ possessive’ s

 Teaching focuses on grammar structure and forms.  Students are active learners.  Teacher frequently corrects students’ errors.  Students may not feel very relaxed in the classroom.  Students frequently work in groups or pairs, using the language together.  Students memorize rules and practice them through speaking and writing drills.  Students do not worry about correctness; they concentrate on using the language.  Language spoken by the teacher is a bit above the students’ level of comprehension.  Teacher helps students to use the language correctly by serving as a good language model  Learning is individualized: student often work alone.  Students are very concerned with speaking and writing correct English: while speaking, they will frequently stop to correct themselves.  Lessons are meaningful and are centered on students’ lives.  Students learn the language structure but have difficult speaking the language in a natural way.  Atmosphere in the classroom is relaxed.  Students learn grammar and structure by using the language in real life situations.  Students memorize dialogues and practice them, making sure to pronounce correctly.  Teacher does not actively correct students’ grammar and pronunciation.  Lessons often focus on things that are not a part of the students’ lives.  Students ma be unable to talk about the rules of the language but can use it for communication.

 Hypothesis 3: The Monitor  Relation between conscious and subconscious processes.  Learning only functions as a monitor, as an editor of our “acquisition-driven” fluency in L2.   Hypothesis 4: The Input  How do people acquire language?  Through comprehensible input = focus on the message, not the form.  Listening comprehension is of primary importance.  Speaking will emerge with time.  Importance of Context, or, Extralinguistic Information!  Caretaker’s speech = the input is roughly tuned = i+1

 Hypothesis 5: The Attitude  Personalities and Motivations count in language acquisition.  Attitude relates to unconscious acquisition.   Hypothesis 6: The Aptitude  Aptitude relates to conscious learning, to induction of rules.   Hypothesis 7: The Filter  The Affective Filter is a mental block against language learning.  The more we do to lower the filter, the more our classes are low-anxiety, the better off our students will be. Input is necessary, but not sufficient.

 Hypothesis 8: The L1  L1 is used as a substitute utterance initiator in situations where L2 acquired competence is not available. Acquirer uses the monitor to make repairs → silent period.   Hypothesis 9: Individual Variation in Monitor Use  Do you trust acquisition or learning?  Over-users vs. under-users vs. optimal users. Adapted Forasiepi 05: S.Krashen, Theory Versus Practice in Language Training, in R.B. Blair ed., Innovative Approaches to Language Teaching, Heinle & Heinle 1982.

Input Mental Block Language Acquisition Device Monitor (Knowledge of Grammar) Acquired Competence

Automaticity Model Barry McLaughlin Attention to Formal Rules of Language Controlled Automatic Focal Peripheral (Cell A) Performance based on formal rule learning (Cell B) Performance in a test situation (Cell C) Performance based on Implicit/analogic learning (Cell D) Performance in communication situation

CONTROLLED: new skill, capacity limited AUTOMATIC: well trained, practiced skill capacity is relatively unlimited. FOCAL intentional attention A. – grammatical explanation of a specific point -Word definition -- copy a written model -The first stages of memorizing a dialog -Prefabricated patterns -Various discrete-pint exercises B. -Keeping an eye out for something -Advanced L2 learner focuses on modals, clause formation, etc. -Monitoring oneself while talking or writing -Scanning -Editing, peer-editing PERIPERALC. -Simple greetings -The later stages of memorizing a dialog -TPR/Natural Approach -New L2 learner successfully completes a brief conversation D. - Open-ended group work - Rapid reading, skimming - free writes - normal conversational exchanges of some length.

Bialystok’s Model of L2 Learning Language Exposure Implicit Linguistic Knowledge Explicit Linguistic Knowledge Other Knowledge R Inferencing Monitoring Type 1 Type 2 _____ Processes Strategies Input Knowledge Output Functional Practicing Formal Practicing Inferencing

 Use a slower speech rate.  Enunciate clearly.  Emphasize key words and phrases through gesture, facial expression, and intonation.  Control the vocabulary you se, opting for more high frequency vocabulary.  Provide synonyms, antonyms, or other descriptive clues to facilitate comprehension of new concepts.  Limit the use of idiomatic expressions.  Allow adequate pause time for processing new terms, directions, and questions.  Use visuals to clarify key concepts: real objects, pictures, maps, props, illustrations on the chalkboard or transparencies, diagrams films, charts, mapped-out ideas.  Demonstrate and act out when appropriate.  Use simplifications, expansions of ideas, direct definitions, and comparisons to build in redundancy.  Summarize and review frequently.  Reinforce key concepts over and over in a variety of situations and activities, using various modalities.  Check frequently for comprehension.  Make corrections indirectly by mirroring in correct form what the students have said.  Keep corrections and suggestions for improvement simple, and offer only what you think each student can handle at his or her proficiency level.  Try to answer all student questions but avoid overly detailed explanations.

TECHNIQUETEACHER BEHAVIOR ENCOURAGE SIMPLIFY PRESENTATION CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING HELP STUDENTS REMEMBER KEY POINTS PROMOTE INTERACTION PROVIDE DIRECT TEACHING MAINTAIN STUDENTS INTEREST  Compliment students  Encourage students through nonverbal cues such as smiling, nodding  Speak slowly  Rephrase key ideas  Repeat important ideas  Ask questions  Ask students to demonstrate  Reinforce Key words and ideas on the board  Ask questions to reinforce learning  Use conversational checks such as “Is this what you are saying?”  Ask for restatements  Use increased wait time  Invite students to expand  Plan for participation using games, conversation, dyads, cooperative learning  Explain skill, concept, language feature  Provide examples for practice  Personalize instruction  Focus on thematically related topics of interest  Support student choice  Focus on meaning rather than primarily on linguistic features  Highlight students’ culture in the classroom

 Develop choral reading experiences and chants to lessen CLD students’ apprehensions about taking risks in L2.  Seek out and structure opportunities for the use of the target language in interpersonal communications.  Attend to the needs, desire, and individual aspirations of students.  Accept and not constantly correct all attempts at target language production.  Accept the use of the students’ active languages in the classroom and encourage parents to support ongoing CALP development in L1 at home.  Exhibit an interest in the home culture and languages of CLD students.  Allow CLD students with very limited English proficiency to communicate through gestures, including nodding, pointing, gesturing, or drawing.  Allow more capable or bilingual peers to assist in the completion of outlines, KWL charts, Venn diagrams, etc.  Write language and content objectives on the board and refer to them throughout lessons.  Develop a predictable daily routine to enhance students’ understandings of expectations, instructional protocol, and means of evaluation.