Frederick A. Bettelheim William H. Brown Mary K. Campbell Shawn O. Farrell William H. Brown Beloit College Chapter 6 Solutions and Colloids

6-2 Solution A homogeneous mixture A mixture of two or more substances that are uniformly distributed and all in the same phase. Components of a Solution: Solvent: Solvent: The fraction of a solution in which the other components are dissolved. Solute: Solute: A substance that is dissolved in a solvent to produce a solution.

6-3 Types of Solutions

6-4 Characteristics of Solutions 1. The distribution of particles in a solution is uniform. 2. The components of a solution do not separate on standing. 3. A solution cannot be separated into its components by filtration. 4. For any given solvent/solute combination, it is possible to make solutions of many different compositions. 5. Solutions are almost always transparent. Solid solutions are an exception. 6. Solutions can be separated into pure components. The separation is a physical change, not a chemical change.

6-5 Describing Solutions Saturated solution: Saturated solution: A solution in which the solvent contains the maximum amount of a solute that can be dissolved at equilibrium at a given temperature. Unsaturated solution: Unsaturated solution: A solution that contains less than the maximum amount of a solute that can be dissolved at a given temperature. Supersaturated solution: Supersaturated solution: A solution that contains more than the equilibrium amount of a solute that can be dissolved at a given temperature. When this solution is disturbed in any way, the excess solute separates and the equilibrium solubility is restored.

6-6 Solubility Solubility: Solubility: The maximum amount of a solute that dissolves in a given amount of solvent at a given temperature. Solubility is a physical constant. insoluble soluble. Each solid has a different solubility in every liquid. Those with low solubility are said to be insoluble, those with higher solubility are said to be soluble. Some liquids are insoluble in each other, as for example, gasoline in water. Other liquids have limited solubility in each other, as for example, ether in water (6 g/100 g H 2 O). Still other liquids are completely soluble in each other, as for example, ethanol and water.

6-7 Solubility Solubility depends on several factors: Nature of the solvent and solute The more similar two compounds are (e.g. polar vs. nonpolar), the more likely it is that one is soluble in the other. Like dissolves like; for example, nonpolar benzene (C 6 H 6 ) in nonpolar carbon tetrachloride (CCl 4 ), ionic compounds (e.g. NaCl) in water, polar table sugar (C 12 H 22 O 11 ) in water (polar).Temperature The solubility of solids in liquids generally increases as temperature increases. The solubility of gases in liquids almost always decreases as temperature increases.

6-8 Solubility Pressure Pressure has little effect on the solubility of liquids or solids in each other. The solubility of a gas in a liquid increases as pressure increases. For example, the solubility of CO 2 in carbonated beverages.

6-9 Solution Concentration Percent composition: Weight of solute per volume of solution (w/v) Weight of solute per volume of solution (w/v). Example: 10 g of table sugar dissolved in enough water to make 100 mL of solution has a concentration of 10% w/v. Weight of solute per weight of solution (w/w); Weight of solute per weight of solution (w/w); Essentially the same as w/v except that the weight of the solution is used instead of its volume. Volume of solute per volume of solution (v/v). Volume of solute per volume of solution (v/v). Example: 40 mL of of ethanol dissolved in enough water to make in 100 mL of solution is 40% v/v.

6-10 Concentration Molarity: Molarity: moles of solute per liter of solution. Example: Example: Describe how to prepare 2.0 L of 0.15 M NaOH. First find the number of moles of NaOH required: Next convert 0.30 mol NaOH to g NaOH: To prepare this solution, dissolve 12.0 g NaOH in enough water of make 2.0 L of solution.

6-11 Concentration Problem: Problem: If the concentration of NaCl in blood serum is approximately 0.14 M, what volume of serum contains 2.0 g of NaCl? First find the number of moles NaCl in 2.0 g NaCl. Using molarity as a conversion factor, find the volume in liters that contains this many moles of NaCl.

6-12 Concentration If we dilute a solution, the number of moles of solute remains the same after dilution. This relation results in the following relationship. M 1 V 1 = M 2 V 2 Problem: Problem: How would you prepare 200 mL of 3.5 M aqueous solution of acetic acid if you have a stock solution of 6.0 M acetic acid. First find the number of L of 6.0 M acetic acid needed: To prepare the desired solution, place 120 mL of 6.0 M acetic in a 200 mL volumetric flask and fill to the mark.

6-13 Concentration For very dilute solutions, we sometimes express concentration in parts per million (ppm), or even parts per billion (ppb). Parts per million (ppm): May be either w/w, w/v, or v/v; which ever quantities are used, the units in which each is reported must be the same. For example, 1 mg of lead ions per 1 kg of water is equivalent to 1 mg of lead per 1,000,000 mg of water; the concentration of lead is 1 ppm. Parts per billion (ppb): Parts per billion (ppb): calculated in the same way.

6-14 Water as a Solvent How water dissolves ionic compounds: Ionic solids consist of a regular array of positive and negative ions. Water is a polar molecule, with positive and negative regions. The negative ions attract the positive regions of water, and the positive ions attract the negative regions of water; each ion attracts 2 to 6 molecules of water Ions dissolved in water are said to be hydrated (surrounded by water molecules). Water of hydration: Water of hydration: The attraction between ions and water is so strong that water molecules are a part of the crystal structure of many solids.

6-15 Electrolytes Ions dissolved in water can migrate from one place to another, maintaining their charge as they migrate. In an apparatus with electrodes, cations (positive ions) migrate to the negative electrode (the cathode) and anions migrate to the positive electrode (the anode). The movement of ions constitutes an electric current. Electrolyte: nonelectrolyte. Electrolyte: A substance that conducts electric current when dissolved in water. A substance that does not conduct electricity is called a nonelectrolyte. Strong electrolyte: Strong electrolyte: A compound that dissociates completely to ions in an aqueous solution. Weak electrolyte: Weak electrolyte: A compound that only partially dissociates to ions in an aqueous solution.

6-16 Electrolytes Figure 6.11 Conductance by an electrolyte

6-17 Water as a Solvent How water dissolves molecular compounds: In a few cases, molecular compounds dissolve in water because they react with water. For example, HCl dissolved in water reacts in the following way: Nonpolar covalent molecules do not dissolve in water. Polar covalent molecules dissolve because they are solvated by hydrogen bonding or by dipole forces. When the nonpolar part of an organic molecule is considerably larger than the polar part, the molecule no longer dissolves in water.

6-18 Water as a Solvent Figure 6.12 Solvation of methanol, CH 3 OH, a covalent compound, by water molecules. The dotted lines represent hydrogen bonds.

6-19 Colloids In true solutions, the maximum diameter of a solute particle is about 1 nm. Colloid: Colloid: A solution in which the solute particle diameter is between 1nm and 1000 nm. Colloid particles have very large surface areas, which accounts for these two characteristics of colloidal systems; They scatter light and, therefore, appear turbid, cloudy, or milky. They form stable dispersions; that is, they do not settle out of solution.

6-20 Types of Colloids

6-21 Colloids Tyndall effect: Tyndall effect: A phenomenon in which light passing through a colloid is scattered by colloidal-sized particles. Examples of colloids that exhibit the Tyndall effect are smoke, serum, and fog. Brownian motion: Brownian motion: The random motion of colloid-size particles. Examples of Brownian motion are the motion of dust particles in the air. What we see are not the dust particles themselves but the flashes of scattered light.

6-22 Colloids Why do colloidal particles remain in solution despite all the collisions due to Brownian motion? Most colloidal particles carry a large solvation layer; if the solvent is water, as in the case of protein molecules in the blood, the large number of surrounding water molecules prevents colloidal molecules from becoming attracted to each other. Because of their large surface area, colloidal particles acquire charges from solution. For example, they all may become negatively charged. When a charged colloidal particle encounters another particle of the same charge, they repel each other.

6-23 Properties of Mixtures

6-24 Colligative Properties Colligative property: Colligative property: Any property of a solution that depends on the number of solute particles, and not on the nature of the particles. Important colligative properties: Freezing-point depression Boiling-point elevation Osmosis

6-25 Freezing Point Depression One mole of any particle dissolved in grams of water lowers the freezing point of water by 1.86°C to -1.86°C. The nature of the particles does not matter, only the number of particles. Depression of freezing point has a number of practical applications: We use NaCl and CaCl 2 to melt snow and ice. We use ethylene glycol as an antifreeze in automobile radiators.

6-26 Freezing-Point Depression Problem: Problem: If we add 275 g of ethylene glycol, C 2 H 6 O 2, per 1000 g of water in a car radiator, what will be the freezing point of the solution? Ethylene glycol is a molecular compound; it dissolves in water without dissociation. First find the number of moles of ethylene glycol: Each mole lowers the freezing point by 1.86°C. The freezing point of the solution will be lowered by 8.26°C to -8.26°C (17.18°F).

6-27 Freezing-Point Depression Problem: Problem: What will be the freezing point of a solution prepared by dissolving 1.00 mole of K 2 SO 4 in 1000 grams of water? K 2 SO 4 is an ionic solid and dissociates to K + and SO 4 2- ions when dissolved in water. One mole of K 2 SO 4 gives three moles of ions. The freezing point is lowered by 3 x 1.86°C or 5.58°C. The solution will freeze at -5.58°C.

6-28 Osmosis Figure 6.16 Osmotic pressure.

6-29 Osmosis Semipermeable membrane: Semipermeable membrane: A membrane with tiny pores that are big enough to allow solvent molecules to pass through them, but not big enough to allow the passage of larger solute molecules. Osmosis: Osmosis: The movement of solvent particles through a semipermeable membrane from a region of lower solute concentration (a less concentrated solution) to a region of higher solute concentration (a more concentrated solution). Osmotic pressure: Osmotic pressure: The pressure necessary to prevent osmosis. Osmolarity (osmol): Osmolarity (osmol): The molarity multiplied by the number of particles produced by each formula unit of solute.

6-30 Osmosis Problem: Problem: An 0.89 percent w/v NaCl solution is referred to as physiological saline solution. What is the osmolarity (osmol) of this solution? 0.89 w/v NaCl = 8.9 g in 1.00 L of solution First we calculate the number of moles of NaCl in this solution: Because each mole of NaCl dissolved in water dissociates into Na + and Cl - ions, the osmolarity of the solution is 0.15 x 2 = 0.30 osmol.

6-31 Osmosis Isotonic solutions: Isotonic solutions: Solutions with the same osmolarity. Isotonic solution: Isotonic solution: A term used primarily in the health sciences to refer to a solution with the same osmolarity as blood plasma and red blood cells. Hypotonic solution: Hypotonic solution: A solution with lower osmolarity than blood plasma and red blood cells. Hemolysis: Hemolysis: The swelling and bursting of red blood cells because they cannot resist the increase in osmotic pressure when put into a hypotonic solution. Hypertonic solution: Hypertonic solution: A solution with higher osmolarity than red blood cells.

6-32 Hemodialysis A hollow-fiber (capillary) dialyzer.

6-33 Chapter 6 Solutions and Colloids End Chapter 6