COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE (P.H.GRICE 1975) The cooperative principles (the four maxims) The cooperative principles (the four maxims) Flouting the maxims - Conversational implicatures Flouting the maxims - Conversational implicatures Tasks Tasks

CO-OPERATIVE PRINCIPLE Grice’s principle is formulated as follows: ‘Make your contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged’. Grice’s principle is formulated as follows: ‘Make your contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged’. According to this principle we interpret language on the assumption that its sender is obeying (observing) four maxims: According to this principle we interpret language on the assumption that its sender is obeying (observing) four maxims: 1. Maxim of quantity: Make your contribution as informative as is required for the current purpose of the exchange. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. 1. Maxim of quantity: Make your contribution as informative as is required for the current purpose of the exchange. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. 2. Maxim of quality: Do not say what you believe to be false; Do not say that for which you lack evidence. 2. Maxim of quality: Do not say what you believe to be false; Do not say that for which you lack evidence. 3. Maxim of Relation: Be relevant 3. Maxim of Relation: Be relevant 4. Maxim of Manner: Avoid obscurity of expression; Avoid ambiguity; Be brief; Be orderly. 4. Maxim of Manner: Avoid obscurity of expression; Avoid ambiguity; Be brief; Be orderly.

HEDGES Because these principles are assumed in normal interaction, speakers rarely mention them. However, there are certain expressions used to mark that speakers may be in danger of not fully adhering to the principles. These expressions are called ‘hedges’. The following examples are taken from Yule (1996:38-39): Because these principles are assumed in normal interaction, speakers rarely mention them. However, there are certain expressions used to mark that speakers may be in danger of not fully adhering to the principles. These expressions are called ‘hedges’. The following examples are taken from Yule (1996:38-39): E.g.: E.g.: Quality: Quality: As far as I know, they’re married As far as I know, they’re married Quantity: Quantity: As you probably know, I am afraid of dogs. As you probably know, I am afraid of dogs. Relation: Relation: Not to change the subject, but is this related to the budget? Not to change the subject, but is this related to the budget? Manner: Manner: b. I’m not sure if this makes sense, but the car had no lights. b. I’m not sure if this makes sense, but the car had no lights.

FLOUTING THE MAXIMS The situations which chiefly interested Grice were those in which a speaker blatantly, deliberately, fails to observe a maxim, not with any intention of deceiving or misleading, but because the speaker wants to prompt the hearer to look for a meaning which is different from the expressed meaning. These are intended violations of the maxims; the sender intends the receiver to perceive them as such. If the sender does not intend violations to be perceived as such, or if the receiver does not realise that they are deliberate, then communication degenerates into lying, or simply breaks down.

CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATURES The basic assumption in conversation is that, unless otherwise indicated, the participants are adhering to some shared rules of conversation, which he calls the Co-operative Principle : The basic assumption in conversation is that, unless otherwise indicated, the participants are adhering to some shared rules of conversation, which he calls the Co-operative Principle : E.g.A:I hope you brought the bread and the cheese. B:Ah, I brought the bread. In order for A to understand B’s reply, A has to assume that B is co-operating, and has given B the right amount of information. But he didn’t mention the cheese. If he had brought the cheese he would have said so. He must intend that A infer that what is not mentioned was not brought. In this case B has conveyed more than he said via a conversational implicature. In order for A to understand B’s reply, A has to assume that B is co-operating, and has given B the right amount of information. But he didn’t mention the cheese. If he had brought the cheese he would have said so. He must intend that A infer that what is not mentioned was not brought. In this case B has conveyed more than he said via a conversational implicature.

FLOUTING THE MAXIM OF QUALITY E.g. (source, Thomas, 1995:55) Late on Christmas Eve 1993 an ambulance is sent to pick up a man who has collapsed in Newcastle city centre. The man is drunk and vomits all over the ambulanceman who goes to help him. The ambulanceman says: ‘Great, that’s really great! That’s made my Christmas!’ QUESTION: What implicature is generated?

FLOUTING THE MAXIM OF QUANTITY Eg. (Mey:69) A:We’ll all miss Bill and Agatha, won’t we? A:We’ll all miss Bill and Agatha, won’t we? B:Well, we’ll all miss Bill. B:Well, we’ll all miss Bill. QUESTION: What implicature is generated?

FLOUTING THE MAXIM OF RELATION E.g. (taken from Thomas, 1995:70) E.g. (taken from Thomas, 1995:70) Geoffrey is a vicar, trying hard to curry favour with his bishop. The speaker is Susan, his wife, who couldn’t care less about the church or religion: Geoffrey is a vicar, trying hard to curry favour with his bishop. The speaker is Susan, his wife, who couldn’t care less about the church or religion: ‘We were discussing the ordination of women. The bishop asked me what I thought. Should women take the services? So long as it doesn’t have to be me, I wanted to say, they can be taken by a trained gorilla. ‘Oh yes”, Geoffrey chips in ‘Susan’s all in favour. She’s keener than I am, aren’t you, darling?’. More sprouts anybody? I said. ‘We were discussing the ordination of women. The bishop asked me what I thought. Should women take the services? So long as it doesn’t have to be me, I wanted to say, they can be taken by a trained gorilla. ‘Oh yes”, Geoffrey chips in ‘Susan’s all in favour. She’s keener than I am, aren’t you, darling?’. More sprouts anybody? I said. QUESTION: What implicature is generated?

FLOUTING THE MAXIM OF MANNER E.g. (taken form Thomas, 1995:71) This interaction occurred during a radio interview with an un-named official from United States Embassy in Port-au-Prince Haiti: This interaction occurred during a radio interview with an un-named official from United States Embassy in Port-au-Prince Haiti: Interviewer:Did the United States Government play any part in Duvalier’s departure? Did they, for example, actively encourage him to leave? Interviewer:Did the United States Government play any part in Duvalier’s departure? Did they, for example, actively encourage him to leave? Official:I would not try to steer you away from that conclusion. Official:I would not try to steer you away from that conclusion.

TASK Explain the following in terms of the cooperative principle: Explain the following in terms of the cooperative principle: metaphors (‘Queen Victoria was made of iron’) metaphors (‘Queen Victoria was made of iron’) hyperbole (‘I’ve got millions of beers in my cellar’) hyperbole (‘I’ve got millions of beers in my cellar’) irony and sarcasm (‘I love it when you sing out of key all the time’) irony and sarcasm (‘I love it when you sing out of key all the time’)

OTHER WAYS OF NOT OBSERVING THE MAXIMS Opting out, i.e refusing to answer. Such an example is Bill Clinton’s response to a journalist who was asking him about the Whitewater affair, a scandal in which Bill and Hillary were involved. When the journalist asked the question, Clinton took his microphone off, got out of his seat, told the journalist he’d had his two questions and went off. Opting out, i.e refusing to answer. Such an example is Bill Clinton’s response to a journalist who was asking him about the Whitewater affair, a scandal in which Bill and Hillary were involved. When the journalist asked the question, Clinton took his microphone off, got out of his seat, told the journalist he’d had his two questions and went off. Suspending the (universality of) maxims Suspending the (universality of) maxims There are occasions/situations/cultures when it appears that there is no expectation that all the maxims will be observed. Compare an interrogation with a confessional. There are occasions/situations/cultures when it appears that there is no expectation that all the maxims will be observed. Compare an interrogation with a confessional. Infringing: Infringing: A speaker who, with no intention of generating an implicature and with no intention of deceiving, fails to observe a maxim. A speaker who, with no intention of generating an implicature and with no intention of deceiving, fails to observe a maxim.

TASKS 1. Which maxims are fluted in the following ex? a. I think I’ll go for a W-A-L-K (spelling the word letter by letter in front of a dog) a. I think I’ll go for a W-A-L-K (spelling the word letter by letter in front of a dog) b. [At a dinner party]: Is there anywhere I can powder my nose? b. [At a dinner party]: Is there anywhere I can powder my nose? c. This meal is delicious (said by a guest who finds the food disgusting) c. This meal is delicious (said by a guest who finds the food disgusting) d. Child:I’m going to watch Match of the Day now. d. Child:I’m going to watch Match of the Day now. Parent:What was that Maths homework you said you had? Parent:What was that Maths homework you said you had? (Source: Cook, 1989)

TASKS [A is working at a computer in one of the department’s lab when she experiences a problem] A:Can you help me? A:Can you help me? B:Graeme’s office hour is in five minutes B:Graeme’s office hour is in five minutes [Jonathan, sensitive about his lack of progress in Italian, has just returned from an Italian evening class] Elena:What did you do? Elena:What did you do? Jonathan: This and that. Jonathan: This and that. [Victor has been buried up to his neck in the back garden by an irate builder. His wife, Margaret, comes out] M:What are you doing? M:What are you doing? V:I’m wallpapering the spare bedroom, what the hell do you think I’m doing? V:I’m wallpapering the spare bedroom, what the hell do you think I’m doing? (One Foot in the Grave, BBC 12/11/96)

TASKS [This is part of the queen’s speech at the anniversary of her 40th year on the [This is part of the queen’s speech at the anniversary of her 40th year on the throne. It had been a bad year for the queen - marital difficulties of her children, the Windsor Palace had gone up in flames] Queen:1992 is not a year which I shall look back with undiluted pleasure. Queen:1992 is not a year which I shall look back with undiluted pleasure.

TASKS 1. ( Thomas, 1995:65): The speaker is Rupert Allason (author, M.P. and expert on the British intelligence services). He is discussing the identity of the so- called ‘Fifth Man’: The speaker is Rupert Allason (author, M.P. and expert on the British intelligence services). He is discussing the identity of the so- called ‘Fifth Man’: It was either Graham Mitchell or Roger Hollis and I don’t think it was Roger Hollis. It was either Graham Mitchell or Roger Hollis and I don’t think it was Roger Hollis. 2. (Thomas, 1995:68) B was on a long journey and wanted to read her book. A was a fellow passenger who wanted to talk to her: B was on a long journey and wanted to read her book. A was a fellow passenger who wanted to talk to her: A:What do you do? A:What do you do? B:I’m a teacher. B:I’m a teacher. A:Where do you teach? A:Where do you teach? B:Outer Mongolia B:Outer Mongolia A:Sorry I asked. A:Sorry I asked.

TASKS 3. ( Thomas, 1995:70): I finished working on my face. I grabbed my bag and a coat. I told mother I was going out…She asked me where I was going. I repeated myself ‘Out’. I finished working on my face. I grabbed my bag and a coat. I told mother I was going out…She asked me where I was going. I repeated myself ‘Out’.