Qualitative Research 2

Key issues Learning a little about methods… 1.Participant observation 2.Focus groups 3.In-depth Interviewing 4.Projective techniques

1) Participant observation “Deep hanging out” Type of engagement with the group varies –Concealed/Open – problems? Relation to the group varies –Observer-as-participant –Participant-as-observer Researcher is the research instrument Observation or participant observation? –Observation – unobtrusive, detached, doesn’t take as long to do the project, can be done using quantitative approach –Participant observation – involved, obtrusive (?) lengthy, intensely qualitative Presentation of self –Way of behaving, dressing, speaking –Need to keep detached enough, not “go native” –Egocentrism vs. ethnocentrism Field notes, video, as ways of capturing observation

2) Focus groups A group discussion facilitated by a moderator to access memories, feelings and perceptions about a particular focused topic Promotes self disclosure, debate and interesting interaction – the whole is more than the sum of the parts! Seven to ten similar (related to the topic) “information rich” participants Moderator keeps the discussion going, keeps everyone on track, makes sure everyone can participate Provide a comfortable, permissive, non threatening environment Three focus groups usually provide a good result visual aids can be employed, TV, video, magazines, to stimulate discussion Incentives can be used (pizza is a good one) Data collection can be through tape recording, video, notes

Focus group examples Are focus groups a good method to use for these questions and why? (and what kinds of methodologies do these questions come from?) Question 1 “Understanding the lived experience of becoming a first time mum after the age of 40” Question 2 “Understanding the lived experience of alcoholism” Question 3 “How are new university employees at Bradford University socialized into workplace rituals?” Question 4 “What are the cultural characteristics of a highly innovative organization?”

3) In depth interviewing In-depth interviews - one person (but sometimes two) is interviewed at a time. The format remains unstructured, the interview is generally conducted by a researcher, and projective techniques may also be used. In-depth interviews explore the nuances of what people think, feel, and experience Ideal for investigating personal, sensitive, or confidential information. This type of interview involves asking informants open-ended questions, and probing wherever necessary to obtain data deemed useful by the researcher Can be used used to explore conceptual issues at an early stage in the development of a questionnaire or to complement quantitative research Valuable for researching people with busy lifestyles who would be unlikely to attend a focus group - e.g. senior businesspeople - also somewhat easier to arrange!! The disadvantage of in-depth interviews is that the respondent may be less willing to open up than in the relaxed atmosphere of a focus group. A skilled interviewer can overcome this, through the establishment of rapport and trust

3) In depth interviewing (2) Three main types of IDI –Informal conversational Typically part of ethnographic research, may be a coffee room chat or a water cooler chat! –Guided Still unstructured and free flowing but there is a guide to the topics that the researcher wishes to cover –Standardised A set of open ended questions that also allows for probing and free answering but comes back to the set of questions until they have all been answered – useful with multi researcher projects

3) In depth interviewing (3) Truly open-ended questions cannot be answered by yes or no, do not pre- determine the answers and allow room for the informants to respond in their own terms. For example, “tell me about the last time you went clothes shopping”, “tell me about typical work place relations at Bradford University” Start with simple questions relating to experiences or actual behaviour or incidents rather than jumping straight into feelings, emotions etc. –Eg “tell me about the last time you went clothes shopping?” (responded to with an account of not being able to find clothes that fit and going home empty handed) THEN “how did you feel about that?” Probing –"Could you say something more about that?"; "Can you give a more detailed description of what happened?; "Do you have further examples of this?" Alternatively, a mere nod, or “hmm," or just a pause Establish rapport –Respect opinions, support feelings and responses –Tone, expressions, gestures. –Kvale (1996:128) ‘a good contact is established by attentive listening, with the interviewer showing interest, understanding, and respect for what the subjects say [a good interview] allows subjects to finish what they are saying, lets them proceed at their own rate of thinking and speaking.’

4) Projective techniques A technique to use in different research encounters (i.e. interviews or focus groups) Based on the projective hypothesis –When people try to understand an ambiguous or open ended stimulus they will subconsciously give a response which truly represents their feelings, perceptions, thought processes and experiences Stimulus an be a question, a fantasy, an incomplete sentence, a drawing/cartoon, an observed situation, a photograph, word association, a shared construction of a collage or simply “what do you think other people think about x?” (otherwise known as gossip!!)

The Zaltman metaphor elicitation technique (ZMAT) –Based on the idea that we think in pictures and metaphors –We need to get at those to understand what/how people are really experiencing phenomena –“describe the plot of a mini documentary about how staff are inducted into Bradford University” –“Find 10 images in a pile of magazines that you personally identify/identified with before and after your weight loss” –“Describe your ideal (or fantasy) airline flight” Projective techniques

Projective techniques (2) Thematic apperception test (TAT) –A drawing, picture or video of a particular situation is presented to the participant and they are encouraged to explain what they think is “happening” – “what is going on here?” –OR: Ask participants to draw a cartoon or line drawing of a particular situation –The data generated from the discussion can be analysed in several ways to generate themes and models, thick description, discourses and/or concepts

Sampling in qualitative research We have already talked about this, can you remember? –What characteristics will need to be reflected in the sample population to address the research question? –Smaller samples Different sampling techniques can be used at different stages of the qual research project Probability sampling is inappropriate for QUAL research – why? –Qualitative research uses non-probability sampling as it does not aim to produce a statistically representative sample or draw statistical inference. Indeed, a phenomenon need only appear once in the sample. Purposive sampling –The number of people interviewed is less important than the criteria used to select them Theoretical sampling –the continual sampling, collection and analysis of data to inform the next stage of the sample design, until ‘theoretical saturation’ is achieved

Fit within overall topic Introduction to qualitative sampling Introduction to specific research methods –You need to know the pragmatics of methods to do any research –In qualitative research the onus is more on you as research instrument so even more important that you understand specific methods, where they came from, how they work and have worked through examples