Models of Human Behavior S R S O R Organism (Individual) acts as an intervening variable

Why individual responses might vary? Perceptions Attributions Attitudes Personality Experience

The Process of Perceiving Picking up of Stimuli Stimulus Selectivity Personal Selectivity Interpreting Stimuli

Perceptual Biases Schema Selective Perception Perceptual Blindness Stereotyping/Halo Effect Primacy vs. Recency Effect Negativity Effect Contrast Effect Nonverbal Cues Attributional biases

Three Components of Attitudes Cognitions (thoughts) Affect (feelings) Behavior (intention to act)

Personality Big Five Personality Factors Agreeableness Conscientiousness Extraversion Neuroticism Openness Other individual personality traits

General Comments on Human Behavior 1.Human behavior is a complex process. 2.We tend to be overly optimistic about the rationality of people. 3.Some individual differences are changeable but others are not. 4.The expectations of others (particularly those in power) strongly influence individual behavior. 5.We generally have a difficult time understanding the behavior of others. 6. We are constantly sending messages to others.

1. Some people just aren’t motivated. 2. Motivation is something you do TO others. 3. A happy worker is a productive worker. Misconceptions about Motivation

Content Theories Process Theories Types of Motivation Theories

- Help us understand what motivation IS (unsatisfied needs) - Need = an internal state of deficiency - Needs Tension Behavior to reduce the tension by satisfying the need (Homeostasis) - At certain times some needs will be more important than others. Content Theories of Motivation

Self- Actualization Esteem Belongingness Security Physiological Need Prepotency Need Progression Premises : 5 level hierarchy Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Aggression Projection Rationalization Escape Exit Defense Mechanisms

Theory X Assumptions 1. The average person dislikes work and will avoid it if at all possible. 2. Most people must be coerced to put forth more than a minimum level of effort on behalf of the organization. 3. The average person prefers to be directed, avoids responsibility, and prefers security above all else. McGregor’s Theory X Theory Y

1. … work is as natural as play or rest. 2. People will exercise self control and self- direction toward objectives to which they are committed. 3. People, under the proper conditions, will accept and even seek responsibility. 4. The capacity for creativity and ingenuity is widely, not narrowly, distributed. 5. The intellectual potential of people is only partially being utilized in today’s workplace. Theory Y Assumptions

Immature Characteristics Mature Characteristics Passivity Activity Dependence Independence Few Ways of Behaving Diverse Behaviors Shallow Interests Deep Interests Short-Term Perspective Long-Term Perspective Subordinate Position Superordinate Position Lack of Self-Awareness Self-Awareness & Self-Control Argyris’ Immaturity Maturity Theory

Growth Relatedness Existence Premises: A 3 level hierarchy Need Progression Need Regression Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Dissatisfaction Satisfaction Low Pay High pay Herzberg’s 2 Factor Theory Dissatisfaction Satisfaction - Hygiene +Hygiene - Motivators + Motivators Traditional View Causes of Employee Satisfaction

Hygiene Factors Motivator Factors Pay Achievement Working ConditionsRecognition Security Work Itself Fringe Benefits Responsibility Company PoliciesGrowth Potential Interpersonal Relations Supervision Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

Need for Affiliation: Interpersonal Relationships Opportunities to Communicate Need for Power: Control over Others Attention Recognition Need for Achievement:Individual Responsibility “Challenging” Goals Immediate Feedback McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory

Maslow’s McGregor’s Argyris’ Alderfer’s Herzberg’s McClelland’s Hierarchy TheoryX/Y Theory ERG Two Factor Acquired Needs Self- Actualization Esteem Social Security Physiological YXYX Mature Immature Motivators Hygiene Achievement Power Affiliation Growth Relational Existence A Comparison of Content Theories

Process Theories of Motivation Expectancy Theory Equity Theory Reinforcement Theory

Valence: the perceived value of a particular outcome to an individual. Instrumentality: the perceived probability that performance will lead to outcomes Expectancy: the perceived probability that effort will lead to task performance Expectancy Theory

PerceptionsReality Effort Perf. Rewards Effort Perf. Rewards E I V Expectancy Theory: continued

1. Perceptions of outcomes received 2. Perceptions of inputs required 3. Perceptions of the outcomes and inputs of a “Referent” other Equity Theory Perceptions

O I O O I I I O = O I O O I I I O < O I O O I I I O > Equity Inequity

Motivation: maintain reduce inequity: current situation 1. Change inputs 2. Change outcomes 3. Alter perceptions of self 4. Alter perceptions of other 5. Change referent other 6. Leave the situation Equity Inequity

Law of Effect: Behavior that tends to lead to rewards tends to be repeated, while behavior that tends to lead to no reward or to punishment tends to be avoided. Reinforcement Theory

Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Extinction Punishment Types of Reinforcers

Basis Frequency Ratio Interval VariableFixed Schedules of Reinforcement

Individual Factors Environmental Factors Needs Tension Effort AlternativeOutcomes courses ofassociated actionwith actions12 etc.etc Select an alternative Effort Ability Actual Actual PerformanceRewards Equity Perceptions Satisfaction Role Perceptions An Integrated Model of Motivation

Motivation Implications If you want a motivated workforce, what are your Options? -Selection -Create an environment that allows employees to satisfy their needs -Change perceptions -Goal setting -Use the reward system