AP Biology March 15, 2012  BellRinger  List 5 examples of instances where you have observed evidence of inherited traits between parents and offspring.  Objectives  Differentiate between the particulate and blended hypothesis of inheritance  Use Punnett squares to predict phenotypic and genotypic outcomes  Homework  Chp 14 (sec 3)

AP Biology Genetics  How are traits inherited?  Debate between two hypothesis:  Particulate hypothesis  traits from parents are joined, but remain discrete  Blended hypothesis  traits are mixed to become a third trait

AP Biology Blended hypothesis P generation (true breeders) coffee and cream What type of offspring can the parents make? (mix the coffee & the cream=mocha colored) F1 generation (mocha colored) What type of offspring can the F1 generation make? Pour out into 4 cups-only mocha colored F2 gen Can the two traits for the characteristic of color be separated out? Do we see examples of this type of character blending in real life?

AP Biology Yes!

AP Biology Particulate hypothesis Two cups with different color marbles in each “true-breeders” What type of offspring can the parents of this cross make? (mix the beads) What types of offspring can the F1 generation make? Make F2 gen by separating the colors out in two cups and mixing the colors in two cups Can the two traits for the characteristic of color be separated out again? Do we see examples of this type of character mixing in real life?

AP Biology Yes!

AP Biology Learning Check  Which hypothesis, particulate or blended, is more likely to explain inheritance of traits?

AP Biology Gregor Mendel  Modern genetics began in the mid-1800s in an abbey garden, where a monk named Gregor Mendel documented inheritance in peas  used experimental method  used quantitative analysis  collected data & counted them  excellent example of scientific method

AP Biology Mendel chose peas wisely  Pea plants are good for genetic research  available in many varieties with distinct heritable features with different variations  flower color, seed color, seed shape, etc.  Mendel had strict control over which plants mated with which  each pea plant has male & female structures  pea plants can self-fertilize  Mendel could also cross-pollinate plants: moving pollen from one plant to another

AP Biology Mendel chose peas luckily  Pea plants are good for genetic research  relatively simple genetically  most characters are controlled by a single gene with each gene having only 2 versions (alleles)  one completely dominant over the other

AP Biology Pollen transferred from white flower to stigma of purple flower anthers removed all purple flowers result Mendel’s work F1F1 P F2F2 self-pollinate  Bred pea plants  cross-pollinate true breeding parents (P)  P = parental  raised seed & then observed traits (F 1 )  F = filial  allowed offspring to self-pollinate & observed next generation (F 2 )

AP Biology Mendel collected data for 7 pea traits

AP Biology F 2 generation 3:1 75% purple-flower peas 25% white-flower peas Looking closer at Mendel’s work P 100% F 1 generation (hybrids) 100% purple-flower peas X true-breeding purple-flower peas true-breeding white-flower peas self-pollinate Where did the white flowers go? White flowers came back!

AP Biology What did Mendel’s findings mean?  4 conclusions 1. Traits come in alternative versions  purple vs. white flower color  alleles  different alleles vary in the sequence of nucleotides at the specific locus of a gene  some difference in sequence of A, T, C, G purple-flower allele & white-flower allele are two DNA variations at flower-color locus different versions of gene at same location on homologous chromosomes

AP Biology

Traits are inherited as discrete units 2. For each characteristic, an organism inherits 2 alleles, 1 from each parent  diploid organism  inherits 2 sets of chromosomes, 1 from each parent  homologous chromosomes  like having 2 editions of encyclopedia  Encyclopedia Britannica  Encyclopedia Americana What are the advantages of being diploid?

AP Biology What did Mendel’s findings mean? 3. Some traits mask others  purple & white flower colors are separate traits that do not blend  purple x white ≠ light purple  purple masked white  dominant allele  functional protein  masks other alleles  recessive allele  allele makes a malfunctioning protein homologous chromosomes I’ll speak for both of us! wild type allele producing functional protein mutant allele producing malfunctioning protein

AP Biology Mendel’s 1 st law of heredity 4. Law of segregation  during meiosis, alleles segregate  homologous chromosomes separate  each allele for a trait is packaged into a separate gamete PP P P pp p p PpPp P p

AP Biology Law of Segregation  Which stage of meiosis creates the law of segregation? Whoa! And Mendel didn ’ t even know DNA or genes existed! Metaphase 1

AP Biology Learning Check  Summarize the 4 parts of Mendel’s model of inheritance

AP Biology Some Vocabulary  Difference between how an organism “looks” & its genetics  phenotype  description of an organism’s trait  the “physical”  genotype  description of an organism’s genetic makeup Explain Mendel’s results using …dominant & recessive …phenotype & genotype F1F1 P X purplewhite all purple

AP Biology Genotypes  Homozygous = same alleles = PP, pp  Heterozygous = different alleles = Pp homozygous dominant homozygous recessive heterozygous

AP Biology Phenotype vs. genotype  2 organisms can have the same phenotype but have different genotypes homozygous dominant PPpurplePpPp heterozygous purple How do you determine the genotype of an individual with with a dominant phenotype?

AP Biology Test cross  Breed the dominant phenotype — the unknown genotype — with a homozygous recessive (pp) to determine the identity of the unknown allele pp is it PP or Pp? x How does that work?

AP Biology PPpp How does a Test cross work? pp P P pp P p PpPppp xx PpPp PpPpPpPp PpPp 100% purple PpPp pp PpPp 50% purple:50% white or 1:1 pp Am I this? Or am I this?

AP Biology Monohybrid cross  Some of Mendel’s experiments followed the inheritance of single characters  flower color  seed color  monohybrid crosses

AP Biology Making crosses  Can represent alleles as letters  flower color alleles  P or p  true-breeding purple-flower peas  PP  true-breeding white-flower peas  pp PP x pp PpPp F1F1 P X purplewhite all purple

AP Biology F 2 generation 3:1 75% purple-flower peas 25% white-flower peas ???? Looking closer at Mendel’s work P X true-breeding purple-flower peas true-breeding white-flower peas PPpp 100% F 1 generation (hybrids) 100% purple-flower peas PpPpPpPpPpPpPpPp phenotype genotype self-pollinate

AP Biology Punnett squares Pp x Pp Pp male / sperm P p female / eggs PP 75% 25% 3:1 25% 50% 25% 1:2:1 % genotype % phenotype PPPpPp PpPppp PpPp PpPp F 1 generation (hybrids) Aaaaah, phenotype & genotype can have different ratios

AP Biology March 16, 2012  BellRinger:  Consider two peas with the following genotypes: IIGG x iigg I=inflated podG=green pod i=constricted podg=yellow pod  How many traits or genes are represented by these genotypes?  When gametes are made in meiosis, how many alleles does each gamete get of a single gene?  Objectives  Predict the genotype and phenotype probabilities of two genes  Homework  Chp 15 (sec 1-3)

AP Biology Dihybrid Crosses  What types of gametes can the dominant parent make?  What types of gametes can the recessive parent make?  What type(s) of offspring will be produced by a cross between these two parents?  If the F1 generation of the plants was allowed to cross, what types of gametes would result?

AP Biology Dihybrid cross  Other of Mendel’s experiments followed the inheritance of 2 different characters  seed color and seed shape  dihybrid crosses

AP Biology Dihybrid cross true-breeding yellow, round peas true-breeding green, wrinkled peas x YYRRyyrr P 100% F 1 generation (hybrids) yellow, round peas Y = yellow R = round y = green r = wrinkled self-pollinate 9:3:3:1 9/16 yellow round peas 3/16 green round peas 3/16 yellow wrinkled peas 1/16 green wrinkled peas F 2 generation YyRr

AP Biology What’s going on here?  If genes are on different chromosomes…  how do they assort in the gametes?  together or independently? YyRr YRyr YyRr YryRYRyr Is it this?Or this? Which system explains the data?

AP Biology 9/16 yellow round 3/16 green round 3/16 yellow wrinkled 1/16 green wrinkled Is this the way it works? YyRr YRyr YR yr x YyRr YryRYR yr YyRr YRyr or YYRRYyRr yyrr Well, that’s NOT right! 

AP Biology Dihybrid cross YyRr YRYryR yr YR Yr yR yr YYRR x YYRrYyRRYyRr YYRrYYrrYyRrYyrr YyRRYyRryyRRyyRr YyRrYyrryyRryyrr 9/16 yellow round 3/16 green round 3/16 yellow wrinkled 1/16 green wrinkled YyRr YryRYR yr YyRr YRyr or BINGO! 

AP Biology Can you think of an exception to this? Mendel’s 2 nd law of heredity round wrinkled  Law of independent assortment  different loci (genes) separate into gametes independently  non-homologous chromosomes align independently  classes of gametes produced in equal amounts  YR = Yr = yR = yr  only true for genes on separate chromosomes or on same chromosome but so far apart that crossing over happens frequently yellow green :11:1:1 Yr yR YR yr YyRr

AP Biology Law of Independent Assortment  Which stage of meiosis creates the law of independent assortment? Metaphase 1 EXCEPTION  If genes are on same chromosome & close together  will usually be inherited together  rarely crossover separately  “linked” Remember Mendel didn ’ t even know DNA — or genes — existed!

AP Biology Review: Mendel’s laws of heredity  Law of segregation  monohybrid cross  single trait  each allele segregates into separate gametes  established by Metaphase 1  Law of independent assortment  dihybrid (or more) cross  2 or more traits  genes on separate chromosomes assort into gametes independently  established by Metaphase 1 metaphase1 EXCEPTION  linked genes

AP Biology Dihybrid crosses-summary  Do both dominant alleles have to go to the same gamete?  Can a gamete have a mixture of dominant and recessive alleles? (Do you have a mixture of dominant and recessive traits from your parents?)  How is each gene segregated independently when they are all on a limited number of chromosomes?  Complete dihybrid practice problems

AP Biology Any Questions??