1 Machine-Level Programming II: Basics Comp 21000: Introduction to Computer Organization & Systems Spring 2015 Instructor: John Barr * Modified slides from the book “Computer Systems: a Programmer’s Perspective”, Randy Bryant & David O’Hallaron, 2011

2 Machine Programming I: Basics History of Intel processors and architectures C, assembly, machine code Assembly Basics: Registers, operands, move Intro to x86-64

3 CISC Properties Instruction can reference different operand types  Immediate, register, memory Arithmetic operations can read/write memory Memory reference can involve complex computation  Rb + S*Ri + D  Useful for arithmetic expressions, too Instructions can have varying lengths  IA32 instructions can range from 1 to 15 bytes

4 Features of IA32 instructions IA32 instructions can be from 1 to 15 bytes.  More commonly used instructions are shorter  Instructions with fewer operands are shorter Each instruction has an instruction format  Each instruction has a unique byte representation  i.e., instruction pushl %ebp has encoding 55 IA32 started as a 16 bit language  So IA32 calls a 16-bit piece of data a “word”  A 32-bit piece of data is a “double word” or a “long word”  A 64-bit piece of data is a “quad word”

5 CPU Assembly Programmer’s View (review) Programmer-Visible State  PC: Program counter  Address of next instruction  Called “EIP” (IA32) or “RIP” (x86-64)  Register file  Heavily used program data  8 named locations, 32 bit values (x86-64)  Condition codes  Store status information about most recent arithmetic operation  Used for conditional branching PC Registers Memory Object Code Program Data OS Data Addresses Data Instructions Stack Condition Codes  Memory  Byte addressable array  Code, user data, (some) OS data  Includes stack used to support procedures

6 Instruction format Assembly language instructions have a very rigid format For most instructions the format is movl Source, Dest Instruction name Source of data for the instruction: Registers/memory Destination of instruction results: Registers/memory Instruction suffix

7 Every operation in GAS has a single-character suffix  Denotes the size of the operand  Example: basic instruction is mov  Can move byte ( movb ), word ( movw ) and double word ( movl ) Note that floating point operations have entirely different instructions. C declaration Intel data type GAS suffixSize (bytes) char Byteb1 short Wordw2 int Double wordl4 unsigned Double wordl4 long int Double wordl4 unsigned long Double wordl4 char * Double wordl4 float Single precision s4 double Double precision l8 long double Extended precision t10/12

8 Registers 8 32-bit general purpose registers  Programmers/compilers can use these  All registers begin with %e  Rest of name is historical: from 8086  Registers originally had specific purposes  No restrictions on use of registers in commands  However, some instructions use fixed registers as source/destination  In procedures there are different conventions for saving/restoring the first 3 registers (%eax, %eac, %edx) than the next 3 (%ebx, %edi, %esi).  Final two registers have special purposes in procedures –%ebp (frame pointer) –%esp (stack pointer)  Will discuss all these later

9 Registers 8 32-bit general purpose registers  The low-order bytes of the first 4 registers can be independently read or written by byte operation instructions.  Done for backward compatibility with 8008 and 8080 (1970’s!)  When a byte of the register is changed, the rest of the register is unaffected.  The low-order 2 bytes (16 bits, i.e., a single word) can be independently read/wrote by word operation instructions  Comes from bit heritage  When a word of the register is changed, the rest of the register is unaffected.  See next slide!

10 Integer Registers (IA32) %eax %ecx %edx %ebx %esi %edi %esp %ebp %ax %cx %dx %bx %si %di %sp %bp %ah %ch %dh %bh %al %cl %dl %bl 16-bit virtual registers (%ax, %cx,dx, …) (backwards compatibility) general purpose accumulate counter data base source index destination index stack pointer base pointer Origin (mostly obsolete) 8-bit register (%ah, %al,ch, …) 32-bit register (%eax, %ecx, …)

11 Moving Data: IA32 Moving Data movl Source, Dest:  Move 4-byte (“long”) word  Lots of these in typical code Operand Types  Immediate: Constant integer data  Example: $0x400, $-533  Like C constant, but prefixed with ‘$’  Encoded with 1, 2, or 4 bytes  Register: One of 8 integer registers  Example: %eax, %edx  But %esp and %ebp reserved for special use  Others have special uses for particular instructions  Memory: 4 consecutive bytes of memory at address given by register  Simplest example: (%eax)  Various other “address modes” %eax %ecx %edx %ebx %esi %edi %esp %ebp

12 Simple Memory Addressing Modes Normal(R)Mem[Reg[R]]  Register R specifies memory address movl (%ecx),%eax DisplacementD(R)Mem[Reg[R]+D]  Register R specifies start of memory region  Constant displacement D specifies offset movl 8(%ebp),%edx

13 Simple Addressing Modes (cont) Immediate$ImmImm  The value Imm is the value that is used movl $4096,%eax AbsoluteImmMem[Imm]  No dollar sign before the number  The number is the memory address to use movl4096,%edx The book has more details on addressing modes!!

14 movl Operand Combinations Cannot do memory-memory transfer with a single instruction movl Imm Reg Mem Reg Mem Reg Mem Reg SourceDestC Analog movl $0x4,%eaxtemp = 0x4; movl $-147,(%eax)*p = -147; movl %eax,%edxtemp2 = temp1; movl %eax,(%edx)*p = temp; movl (%eax),%edxtemp = *p; Src,Dest

15 mov instructions InstructionEffectDescription movl S,D movw S,D D  S Move double word Move word movb S,D D  SMove byte movsbl S,D D  SignExtend (S) Move sign-extended byte movzbl S,D D  ZeroExtend Move zero-extended byte Notes:1. byte movements must use one of the 8 single-byte registers 2. word movements must use one of the 8 2-byte registers 3. movsbl takes single byte source, performs sign-extension on high-order 24 bits, copies the resulting double word to dest. 4. movzbl takes single byte source, performs adds 24 0’s to high-order bits, copies the resulting double word to dest

16 mov instruction example Assume that %dh = 8D and %eax = at the beginning of each of these instructions instructionresult 1. movb %dh, %al %eax = 2. movsbl %dh, %eax %eax = 3. movzbl %dh, %eax %eax = D FFFFFF8D D

17 mov instruction example instructionaddressing mode 1. movl $0x4050, %eax 2. movl %ebp, %esp 3. movl (%ecx), %eax 4. movl $-17, (%esp) 5. movl %eax, -12(%ebp) Imm  Reg Reg  Reg Mem  Reg Imm  Mem Reg  Mem (Displacement)

18 Special memory areas: stack and heap Stack  Space in Memory allocated to each running program (called a process)  Used to store “temporary” variable values  Used to store variables for functions Heap  Space in Memory allocated to each running program (process)  Used to store dynamically allocated variables Kernel virtual memory Memory mapped region for shared libraries Run-time heap (created at runtime by malloc) User stack (created at runtime) Unused Read/write segment (.data,.bss ) Read-only segment (.init,.text,.rodata )

19 Using Simple Addressing Modes void swap(int *xp, int *yp) { int t0 = *xp; int t1 = *yp; *xp = t1; *yp = t0; } Body Set Up Finish swap: pushl %ebp movl %esp,%ebp pushl %ebx movl 8(%ebp), %edx movl 12(%ebp), %ecx movl (%edx), %ebx movl (%ecx), %eax movl %eax, (%edx) movl %ebx, (%ecx) popl %ebx popl %ebp ret Use %ebp to manipulate the stack; we’ll discuss why later

20 Using Simple Addressing Modes void swap(int *xp, int *yp) { int t0 = *xp; int t1 = *yp; *xp = t1; *yp = t0; } swap: pushl %ebp movl %esp,%ebp pushl %ebx movl8(%ebp), %edx movl12(%ebp), %ecx movl(%edx), %ebx movl(%ecx), %eax movl%eax, (%edx) movl%ebx, (%ecx) popl%ebx popl%ebp ret Body Set Up Finish

21 Understanding Swap void swap(int *xp, int *yp) { int t0 = *xp; int t1 = *yp; *xp = t1; *yp = t0; } Stack (in memory) RegisterValue %edxxp %ecxyp %ebxt0 %eaxt1 yp xp Rtn adr Old % ebp %ebp Offset Old % ebx -4 %esp movl8(%ebp), %edx# edx = xp movl12(%ebp), %ecx# ecx = yp movl(%edx), %ebx# ebx = *xp (t0) movl(%ecx), %eax# eax = *yp (t1) movl%eax, (%edx)# *xp = t1 movl%ebx, (%ecx)# *yp = t0 Pushed on the stack by the calling function NOTE: MEMORY GROWS UP; 0 IS AT BOTTOM!

22 Understanding Swap 0x120 0x124 Rtn adr %ebp Offset Address 0x124 0x120 0x11c 0x118 0x114 0x110 0x10c 0x108 0x104 0x100 yp xp %eax %edx %ecx %ebx %esi %edi %esp %ebp0x104 movl8(%ebp), %edx# edx = xp movl12(%ebp), %ecx# ecx = yp movl(%edx), %ebx# ebx = *xp (t0) movl(%ecx), %eax# eax = *yp (t1) movl%eax, (%edx)# *xp = t1 movl%ebx, (%ecx)# *yp = t0 Assume that the main() uses this memory for variables

23 Understanding Swap 0x120 0x124 Rtn adr %ebp Offset Address 0x124 0x120 0x11c 0x118 0x114 0x110 0x10c 0x108 0x104 0x100 yp xp %eax %edx %ecx %ebx %esi %edi %esp %ebp 0x124 0x104 0x120 movl8(%ebp), %edx# edx = xp movl12(%ebp), %ecx# ecx = yp movl(%edx), %ebx# ebx = *xp (t0) movl(%ecx), %eax# eax = *yp (t1) movl%eax, (%edx)# *xp = t1 movl%ebx, (%ecx)# *yp = t0

24 Understanding Swap 0x120 0x124 Rtn adr %ebp Offset Address 0x124 0x120 0x11c 0x118 0x114 0x110 0x10c 0x108 0x104 0x100 yp xp %eax %edx %ecx %ebx %esi %edi %esp %ebp 0x120 0x104 0x124 movl8(%ebp), %edx# edx = xp movl12(%ebp), %ecx# ecx = yp movl(%edx), %ebx# ebx = *xp (t0) movl(%ecx), %eax# eax = *yp (t1) movl%eax, (%edx)# *xp = t1 movl%ebx, (%ecx)# *yp = t0

Understanding Swap 0x120 0x124 Rtn adr %ebp Offset Address 0x124 0x120 0x11c 0x118 0x114 0x110 0x10c 0x108 0x104 0x100 yp xp %eax %edx %ecx %ebx %esi %edi %esp %ebp 0x124 0x x104 movl8(%ebp), %edx# edx = xp movl12(%ebp), %ecx# ecx = yp movl(%edx), %ebx# ebx = *xp (t0) movl(%ecx), %eax# eax = *yp (t1) movl%eax, (%edx)# *xp = t1 movl%ebx, (%ecx)# *yp = t0

26 Understanding Swap 0x120 0x124 Rtn adr %ebp Offset Address 0x124 0x120 0x11c 0x118 0x114 0x110 0x10c 0x108 0x104 0x100 yp xp %eax %edx %ecx %ebx %esi %edi %esp %ebp 456 0x124 0x120 0x movl8(%ebp), %edx# edx = xp movl12(%ebp), %ecx# ecx = yp movl(%edx), %ebx# ebx = *xp (t0) movl(%ecx), %eax# eax = *yp (t1) movl%eax, (%edx)# *xp = t1 movl%ebx, (%ecx)# *yp = t0

Understanding Swap 0x120 0x124 Rtn adr %ebp Offset -4 Address 0x124 0x120 0x11c 0x118 0x114 0x110 0x10c 0x108 0x104 0x100 yp xp %eax %edx %ecx %ebx %esi %edi %esp %ebp 456 0x124 0x x movl8(%ebp), %edx# edx = xp movl12(%ebp), %ecx# ecx = yp movl(%edx), %ebx# ebx = *xp (t0) movl(%ecx), %eax# eax = *yp (t1) movl%eax, (%edx)# *xp = t1 movl%ebx, (%ecx)# *yp = t0

28 Understanding Swap 0x120 0x124 Rtn adr %ebp Offset Address 0x124 0x120 0x11c 0x118 0x114 0x110 0x10c 0x108 0x104 0x100 yp xp %eax %edx %ecx %ebx %esi %edi %esp %ebp 456 0x124 0x120 0x movl8(%ebp), %edx# edx = xp movl12(%ebp), %ecx# ecx = yp movl(%edx), %ebx# ebx = *xp (t0) movl(%ecx), %eax# eax = *yp (t1) movl%eax, (%edx)# *xp = t1 movl%ebx, (%ecx)# *yp = t0

29 Understanding Assembly void mystery(int a, int b) { int t0 = __________; int t1 = __________; int t2 = __________; return _________; } int main() { int x = mystery(10, 33); return 0; } Complete this exercise on your handout sheet!

30 Understanding Assembly void mystery (int a, int b) { int t0 = __________; int t1 = __________; int t2 = __________; return _________; } Stack (in memory) RegisterValue %edx %ecx %ebx %eax Rtn adr ?? %esp Offset ?? -4 0x :push %ebp 0x :mov %esp,%ebp 0x :sub $0x10,%esp Pushed on the stack by the calling function NOTE: Stack often increased to account for local variables ?? b a Fill out the addresses for the stack on your handout

31 Understanding Assembly void mystery (int a, int b) { int t0 = __________; int t1 = __________; int t2 = __________; return _________; } Stack (in memory) RegisterValue %edx %ecx %ebx %eax Rtn adr old %ebp %esp Offset ?? -4 0x :push %ebp 0x :mov %esp,%ebp 0x :sub $0x10,%esp Pushed on the stack by the calling function NOTE: Stack often increased arbitrary amount for local variables ?? b a

32 Understanding Assembly void mystery (int a, int b) { int t0 = __________; int t1 = __________; int t2 = __________; return _________; } Stack (in memory) RegisterValue %edx %ecx %ebx %eax Rtn adr old %ebp %esp Offset ?? -4 0x :push %ebp 0x :mov %esp,%ebp 0x :sub $0x10,%esp Pushed on the stack by the calling function NOTE: Stack often increased arbitrary amount for local variables ?? b a %ebp

33 Understanding Assembly void mystery (int a, int b) { int t0 = __________; int t1 = __________; int t2 = __________; return _________; } Stack (in memory) RegisterValue %edx %ecx %ebx %eax Rtn adr old %ebp %ebp Offset ?? -4 0x :push %ebp 0x :mov %esp,%ebp 0x :sub $0x10,%esp Pushed on the stack by the calling function NOTE: Stack often increased arbitrary amount for local variables ?? %esp b a

34 Understanding Assembly void mystery (int a, int b) { int t0 = __________; int t1 = __________; int t2 = __________; return _________; } Stack (in memory) RegisterValue %edx %ecx %ebx %eax Rtn adr Old % ebp %ebp Offset ?? -4 %esp 0x :mov 0x8(%ebp),%eax 0x :add $0x5,%eax 0x c :mov %eax,-0xc(%ebp) Pushed on the stack by the calling function ?? b a ?? -8

35 Understanding Assembly void mystery (int a, int b) { int t0 = __________; int t1 = __________; int t2 = __________; return _________; } Stack (in memory) RegisterValue %edx %ecx %ebx %eax Rtn adr Old % ebp %ebp Offset ?? -4 %esp 0x :mov 0x8(%ebp),%eax 0x :add $0x5,%eax 0x c :mov %eax,-0xc(%ebp) Pushed on the stack by the calling function ?? b a ?? -8

36 Understanding Assembly void mystery (int a, int b) { int t0 = a + 5; int t1 = __________; int t2 = __________; return _________; } Stack (in memory) RegisterValue %edx %ecx %ebx %eax Rtn adr Old % ebp %ebp Offset ?? -4 %esp 0x :mov 0x8(%ebp),%eax 0x :add $0x5,%eax 0x c :mov %eax,-0xc(%ebp) Pushed on the stack by the calling function 15 ?? b t0 a ?? -8

37 Understanding Assembly void mystery (int a, int b) { int t0 = a + 5; int t1 = __________; int t2 = __________; return _________; } Stack (in memory) RegisterValue %edx %ecx %ebx %eax Rtn adr Old % ebp %ebp Offset ?? -4 %esp 0x f :mov 0xc(%ebp),%eax 0x :sub $0x3,%eax 0x :mov %eax,-0x8(%ebp) Pushed on the stack by the calling function 15 ?? b t0 a %eax is often used for temporary values ?? -8

38 Understanding Assembly void mystery (int a, int b) { int t0 = a + 5; int t1 = __________; int t2 = __________; return _________; } Stack (in memory) RegisterValue %edx %ecx %ebx %eax Rtn adr Old % ebp %ebp Offset ?? -4 %esp 0x f :mov 0xc(%ebp),%eax 0x :sub $0x3,%eax 0x :mov %eax,-0x8(%ebp) Pushed on the stack by the calling function 15 ?? b t0 a ?? -8

39 Understanding Assembly void mystery (int a, int b) { int t0 = a + 5; int t1 = b - 3; int t2 = __________; return _________; } Stack (in memory) RegisterValue %edx %ecx %ebx %eax Rtn adr Old % ebp %ebp Offset ?? -4 %esp 0x f :mov 0xc(%ebp),%eax 0x :sub $0x3,%eax 0x :mov %eax,-0x8(%ebp) Pushed on the stack by the calling function 15 ?? b t0 a t1

40 Understanding Assembly void mystery (int a, int b) { int t0 = a + 5; int t1 = b - 3; int t2 = __________; return _________; } Stack (in memory) RegisterValue %edx %ecx %ebx %eax Rtn adr Old % ebp %ebp Offset ?? -4 %esp 0x :mov -0x8(%ebp),%eax 0x b :mov -0xc(%ebp),%edx 0x e :add %edx,%eax 0x :mov %eax,-0x4(%ebp) Pushed on the stack by the calling function 15 ?? b t0 a t1 Finish this exercise on your handout sheet

41 Understanding Assembly void mystery (int a, int b) { int t0 = a + 5; int t1 = b - 3; int t2 = t0 + t1; return t2; } Stack (in memory) RegisterValue %edx15 %ecx %ebx %eax Rtn adr Old % ebp %ebp Offset %esp 0x :mov -0x4(%ebp),%eax 0x :leave 0x :ret Pushed on the stack by the calling function 15 ?? b t0 a t1 t2 NOTE: by convention the return value is ALWAYS stored in %eax

42 Complete Memory Addressing Modes Most General Form D(Rb,Ri,S)Mem[Reg[Rb]+S*Reg[Ri]+ D]  D: Constant “displacement” 1, 2, or 4 bytes  Rb: Base register: Any of 8 integer registers  Ri:Index register: Any, except for %esp  Unlikely you’d use %ebp, either  S: Scale: 1, 2, 4, or 8 (why these numbers?) Special Cases (Rb,Ri)Mem[Reg[Rb]+Reg[Ri]] D(Rb,Ri)Mem[Reg[Rb]+Reg[Ri]+D] (Rb,Ri,S)Mem[Reg[Rb]+S*Reg[Ri]] D(Rb,Ri,S)Mem[Reg[Rb]+S*Reg[Ri]+D]

43 Address Computation Examples %edx %ecx 0xf000 0x100 ExpressionComputationAddress 0x8(%edx) (%edx,%ecx) (%edx,%ecx,4) 0x80(,%edx,2)

44 Address Computation Examples %edx %ecx 0xf000 0x100 ExpressionComputationAddress 0x8(%edx) (%edx,%ecx) (%edx,%ecx,4) 0x80(,%edx,2) 0xf x80xf008 0xf x1000xf100 0xf *0x1000xf400 2 *0xf x800x1e080

45 Address Computation Instruction leal Src,Dest  Src is address mode expression  Set Dest to address denoted by expression Format  Looks like a memory access  Does not actually access memory  Rather, calculates the memory address, then stores in a register Uses  Computing addresses without a memory reference  E.g., translation of p = &x[i];  Computing arithmetic expressions of the form x + k*y  k = 1, 2, 4, or 8. lea = load effective address

46 Example Converted to ASM by compiler: int mul12(int x) { return x*12; } int mul12(int x) { return x*12; } leal (%eax,%eax,2), %eax ;t <- x+x*2 sall $2, %eax ;return t<<2 ; or t * 4 leal (%eax,%eax,2), %eax ;t <- x+x*2 sall $2, %eax ;return t<<2 ; or t * 4

47 Address Computation Instruction ExpressionResult leal 6(%eax), %edx leal (%eax, %ecx), %edx leal (%eax, %ecx, 4), %edx leal 7(%eax, %eax, 8), %edx leal 0xA(,%eax, 4), %edx leal 9(%eax,%ecx, 2), %edx Assume %eax holds value x and %ecx holds value y * Note the leading comma in the next to last entry

48 Address Computation Instruction ExpressionResult leal 6(%eax), %edx leal (%eax, %ecx), %edx leal (%eax, %ecx, 4), %edx leal 7(%eax, %eax, 8), %edx leal 0xA(,%eax, 4), %edx leal 9(%eax,%ecx, 2), %edx Assume %eax holds value x and %ecx holds value y * Note the leading comma in the next to last entry %edx  x + 6 %edx  x + (y * 2) + 9 %edx  (x * 4) + 10 %edx  x + (x * 8) + 7 = (x * 9) + 7 %edx  x + (y * 4) %edx  x + y

49 pushl and popl instructions InstructionEffectDescription pushl SR[%esp]  R[%esp]–4; M[R[%esp]]  S Push on runtime stack popl DD  M[R[%esp]]; R[%esp]  R[%esp]+4 Pop from runtime stack Notes:1. both instructions take a single operand 2. Stack is a place in memory allocated to a process 3. Stack grows from smaller addresses to larger addresses 4. %esp holds the address of the current top of stack 5. When pushl a value, first increment %esp by 4, then write the value at the new top of stack address. Effect of a pushl %ebp instruction: subl $4, %esp movl %ebp, (%esp) Effect of a popl %eax instruction: movl (%esp), %eax subl$4, %esp

50 Increasing address Stack “top” Stack “bottom” 0x108 Stack “top” Stack “bottom” 0x104 Stack “top” Stack “bottom” 0x108 0x x108 %eax %edx %esp Initially 0x x104 %eax %edx %esp pushl %eax 0x123 0x108 %eax %edx %esp popl %edx 0x123 0x By convention we draw the stack with the top towards the bottom 2. IA32 stack grows toward lower addresses Stack Grows Down

51 Machine Programming I: Basics History of Intel processors and architectures C, assembly, machine code Assembly Basics: Registers, operands, move Intro to x86-64

52 Data Representations: IA32 + x86-64 Sizes of C Objects (in Bytes)  C Data TypeGeneric 32-bitIntel IA32x86-64  unsigned444  int444  long int448  char111  short222  float444  double888  long double810/1216  char *448 –Or any other pointer

53 %rsp x86-64 Integer Registers  Extend existing registers. Add 8 new ones.  Make %ebp / %rbp general purpose %eax %ebx %ecx %edx %esi %edi %esp %ebp %r8d %r9d %r10d %r11d %r12d %r13d %r14d %r15d %r8 %r9 %r10 %r11 %r12 %r13 %r14 %r15 %rax %rbx %rcx %rdx %rsi %rdi %rbp

54 Instructions Long word l (4 Bytes) ↔ Quad word q (8 Bytes) New instructions:  movl ➙ movq  addl ➙ addq  sall ➙ salq  etc. 32-bit instructions that generate 32-bit results  Set higher order bits of destination register to 0  Example: addl

55 32-bit code for swap void swap(int *xp, int *yp) { int t0 = *xp; int t1 = *yp; *xp = t1; *yp = t0; } Body Set Up Finish swap: pushl %ebp movl %esp,%ebp pushl %ebx movl8(%ebp), %edx movl12(%ebp), %ecx movl(%edx), %ebx movl(%ecx), %eax movl%eax, (%edx) movl%ebx, (%ecx) popl%ebx popl%ebp ret

56 64-bit code for swap Operands passed in registers (why useful?)  First ( xp ) in %rdi, second ( yp ) in %rsi  64-bit pointers No stack operations required 32-bit data  Data held in registers %eax and %edx  movl operation void swap(int *xp, int *yp) { int t0 = *xp; int t1 = *yp; *xp = t1; *yp = t0; } Body Set Up Finish swap: movl(%rdi), %edx movl(%rsi), %eax movl%eax, (%rdi) movl%edx, (%rsi) ret

57 64-bit code for long int swap 64-bit data  Data held in registers %rax and %rdx  movq operation  “q” stands for quad-word void swap(long *xp, long *yp) { long t0 = *xp; long t1 = *yp; *xp = t1; *yp = t0; } Body Set Up Finish swap_l: movq (%rdi), %rdx movq (%rsi), %rax movq %rax, (%rdi) movq %rdx, (%rsi) ret

58 Machine Programming I: Summary History of Intel processors and architectures  Evolutionary design leads to many quirks and artifacts C, assembly, machine code  Compiler must transform statements, expressions, procedures into low-level instruction sequences Assembly Basics: Registers, operands, move  The x86 move instructions cover wide range of data movement forms Intro to x86-64  A major departure from the style of code seen in IA32