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2 Lecture 10 Outline (Ch. 41) I.Animal Nutrition Overview II.Essential Parts of Animal Diet III. Food Intake IV.Digestive Compartments V.Adaptations VI.Obesity VII.Preparation for next lecture

3 Overview: The Need to Feed Food is taken in, taken apart, and taken up in the process of animal nutrition In general, animals fall into three categories: –Herbivores eat mainly autotrophs (plants, algae) –Carnivores eat other animals –Omnivores regularly consume animals as well as plants or algal matter

4 Chemical energy, which is converted into ATP and powers processes in the body Organic carbon and organic nitrogen Essential nutrients must be obtained from dietary sources Essential Parts of Diet –Essential amino acids –Essential fatty acids –Vitamins –Minerals

5 Meat, eggs, cheese - provide all nine essential amino acids ( “complete” proteins) Individuals eating only plant proteins need specific plant combinations for all essential amino acids Essential Parts of Diet Beans and other legumes Corn (maize) and other grains Lysine Essential amino acids for adults Tryptophan Isoleucine Leucine Phenylalanine Threonine Valine Methionine

6 Animals can synthesize most fatty acids they need The essential fatty acids are certain unsaturated fatty acids that must be obtained from the diet Essential Parts of Diet Vitamins: organic molecules needed in small amounts 13 essential vitamins for humans Fat-soluble & water-soluble B-complex Biotin Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) Vitamin A Vitamin D Vitamin E Vitamin K

7 Minerals Minerals: inorganic nutrients, small amounts needed Calcium Phosphorus Potassium Sulfur Chlorine Sodium Magnesium Iron A diet missing a certain essential part or not enough calories overall leads to malnourishment or undernourishment

If a person is following a vegan diet, why is it recommended to eat a variety of plant sources? A.Plants are not complete proteins B.They are likely missing specific vitamins C.Certain fatty acids may be missing D.They may lack particular minerals

9 Ingestion: the act of eating Suspension feeders - many aquatic animals, which sift small food particles from the water Substrate feeders are animals that live in or on their food source Fluid feeders suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living host Bulk feeders eat relatively large pieces of food Food Intake

10 Humpback whale, a suspension feeder Baleen Leaf miner caterpillar, substrate feeder Caterpillar Feces Mosquito, a fluid feeder Rock python, a bulk feeder

IngestionDigestion Absorption Elimination Undigested material Chemical digestion (enzymatic hydrolysis) Nutrient molecules enter body cells Small molecules Mechanical digestion Food Pieces of food Food Intake Digestion: process of breaking food down into molecules small enough to absorb In chemical digestion, enzymatic hydrolysis splits bonds in molecules Absorption is uptake of nutrients by body cells Elimination is the passage of undigested material out of the digestive compartment

12 Digestive Compartments Most animals process food in specialized compartments Reduces risk animal digesting its own cells/ tissues Gastrovascular cavity Food Epidermis Mouth Tentacles Gastrodermis

13 More complex animals: digestive tube with two openings (mouth, anus) Tube called a complete digestive tract or an alimentary canal Can have specialized regions, carry out digestion and absorption stepwise Digestive Compartments Esophagus Mouth Pharynx CropGizzard Typhlosole Intestine Lumen of intestine Anus (b) Grasshopper Foregut (c) Bird (a) Earthworm MidgutHindgut Esophagus Rectum Anus Mouth Crop Gastric cecae Esophagus Mouth Crop Anus Stomach Gizzard Intestine

14 Cecum Anus Ascending portion of large intestine Gall- bladder Small intestine Large intestine Small intestine Rectum Pancreas Liver Salivary glands Tongue Oral cavity Pharynx Esophagus Sphincter Stomach Sphincter Duodenum of small intestine Appendix Liver Pancreas Small intestine Large intestine Rectum Stomach Gall- bladder A schematic diagram of the human digestive system Esophagus Salivary glands Mouth Digestive Compartments Mammalian alimentary canal and accessory glands that secrete digestive juices through ducts

15 Larynx Trachea Epiglottis up Pharynx Tongue Glottis Esophagus Esophageal sphincter contracted Food To stomach To lungs Epiglottis down Esophageal sphincter relaxed Glottis up and closed Epiglottis up Esophageal sphincter contracted Sphincter relaxed Relaxed muscles Contracted muscles Relaxed muscles Stomach Glottis down and open Oral Cavity, Pharynx, Esophagus Food shaped into a bolus, lubricated by saliva, digestion begins with amylase. Pharynx, a junction that opens to both the esophagus and the trachea (windpipe) The esophagus conducts food from the pharynx down to the stomach by peristalsis Epiglottis blocks entry to the trachea, and larynx.

16 Digestion in the Stomach The stomach stores food and secretes gastric juice, which converts a meal to acid chyme Gastric juice - hydrochloric acid (parietal cells) and the enzyme pepsin (chief cells) Mucus protects the stomach lining from gastric juice Interior surface of stomach Esophagus Chief cells Small intestine Epithelium Stomach Sphincter Parietal cell Chief cell Folds of epithelial tissue Pepsin Sphincter Pepsinogen HCl H+H+ Cl – Parietal cells Mucus cells Gastric gland µm

17 Digestion in the Small Intestine The small intestine: longest section of alimentary canal Major organ of digestion and absorption First is the duodenum - acid chyme from the stomach mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and the small intestine itself.

18 Digestion in the Small Intestine liver/gallbladder bile aids digestion and absorption of fats small intestine lining of duodenum (brush border) produces several digestive enzymes jejunum and ileum mainly absorb water & nutrients pancreas proteases trypsin & chymotrypsin amylase & lipase neutralizes the acidic chyme

Where are most fats broken and absorbed? A.In the mouth B.In the stomach C.In the liver D.In the small intestine

20 Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus Stomach Lumen of small intestine Epithelium of small intestine (brush border) Carbohydrate digestion Polysaccharides Smaller polysaccharides, maltose Polysaccharides Maltose and other disaccharides Disaccharides Protein digestionNucleic acid digestionFat digestion Proteins Small polypeptides Pepsin Pancreatic amylases Salivary amylase Disaccharidases Monosaccharides Small peptides Amino acids Polypeptides Smaller polypeptides Pancreatic trypsin and chymotrypsin Pancreatic carboxypeptidase Dipeptidases, carboxypeptidase, and aminopeptidase DNA, RNA Pancreatic nucleases Fat globules Nucleotides Fat droplets Nucleosides Nitrogenous bases, sugars, phosphates Nucleotidases Nucleosidases and phosphatases Glycerol, fatty acids, monoglycerides Bile salts Pancreatic lipase (starch, glycogen)(sucrose, lactose)

21 Absorption in the Small Intestine small intestine has huge surface area, from villi and microvilli exposed to the intestinal lumen enormous microvillar surface greatly increases rate of nutrient absorption Muscle layers Microvilli (brush border) at apical (lumenal) surface Vein carrying blood to hepatic portal vein Villi Intestinal wall Key Nutrient absorption Large circular folds Blood capillaries Epithelial cells Villi Lymph vessel Basal surface Lacteal Epithelial cells Lumen

22 Absorption in the Small Intestine

23 Absorption in the Large Intestine The colon of the large intestine is connected to the small intestine The cecum aids in fermentation of plant material, connects where the small and large intestines meet Human cecum has extension (appendix), plays a minor role in immunity Feces stored in rectum until eliminated

24 The colon houses strains of the bacterium Escherichia coli, some of which produce vitamins Two sphincters between the rectum and anus control bowel movements –Internal smooth muscle sphincter (involuntary) –External striated muscle sphincter (voluntary) Absorption in the Large Intestine

25 Mutualistic Adaptations Many herbivores have symbiotic microorganisms that digest cellulose The most elaborate adaptations in ruminants Esophagus Omasum Abomasum Intestine Rumen Reticulum

26 Herbivores generally have longer alimentary canals than carnivores, reflecting the longer time needed to digest vegetation Cecum Small intestine HerbivoreCarnivore Colon (large intestine) Stomach Small intestine Adaptations Enzymes for digesting plant matter

Where is most water absorbed? A.In the stomach B.In the small intestine C.In the cecum D.In the large intestine

28 Energy Sources and Stores Animals store excess calories as glycogen in the liver and muscles Energy secondarily stored as adipose, or fat, cells When fewer calories are taken in than are expended, fuel is taken from storage and oxidized 100 µm Fat cells Obesity is due to excessive intake of food energy, excess stored as fat Obesity contributes to diabetes (type 2), cancer of the colon and breasts, heart attacks, and strokes

Homeostasis: 90 mg glucose/ 100 mL blood Stimulus: Blood glucose level rises after eating. Stimulus: Blood glucose level drops below set point. Energy Sources and Stores Pancreas releases insulin – cells uptake sugars Pancreas releases glucagon – liver releases sugars

If you eat a meal high in sugar, what happens? A.Glucagon is released B.Glycogen is broken down C.Insulin is released D.Fats are broken down

31 Leptin PYY Insulin Ghrelin Energy Sources and Stores The complexity of weight control in humans is evident from studies of the hormone leptin Mice that inherit a defect in the gene for leptin become very obese Leptin – released by fat cells, suppresses appetite PYY – secreted by sm. Intestine, suppresses appetite Ghrelin – secreted by stomach, stimulates appetite Insulin – secreted by pancreas – triggers blood glucose uptake

32 Obese mouse with mutant ob gene (left) – mutant for leptin production – next to wild-type sibling mouse.

The gene db codes for the leptin receptor. If mice are mutant for the db gene what happens? A.They fail to make leptin – increased appetite B.They fail to detect leptin – decreased appetite C.They fail to detect leptin – increased appetite D.They fail to make leptin – decreased appetite

34 Obesity and Evolution The problem of maintaining weight partly stems from our evolutionary past, when fat hoarding was a means of survival A plump petrel A species of birds called petrels become obese as chicks; in order to consume enough protein from high- fat food, chicks need to consume more calories than they burn

Things To Do After Lecture 10… Reading and Preparation: 1.Re-read today’s lecture, highlight all vocabulary you do not understand, and look up terms. 2.Ch. 41 Self-Quiz: #2, 3, 4, 5, 6 (correct answers in back of book) 3.Read chapter 41, focus on material covered in lecture (terms, concepts, and figures!) 4.Skim next lecture. “HOMEWORK” (NOT COLLECTED – but things to think about for studying): 1.Describe the pathway that food molecules take from ingestion through elimination – where appropriate, indicate which digestive enzymes are secreted and what biomolecules are broken down. 2.Define, and then list: necessary vitamins and minerals. 3.Explain the difference between a substrate feeder and a bulk feeder. 4.Compare the function of leptin and ghrelin – where and when are each secreted/released?