Dialect and Register Dr Wiebke Brockhaus-Grand German Studies

1. Variation in language This is typically seen as variation ‘from’ or even ‘within’ a standard variety and consists primarily of usage-dependent and user- dependent variation.

1.1Standard languages, national languages and the ‘ideology of standard’ Standard languages are typically codified prestige varieties Standard languages are typically codified prestige varieties The status of standard languages, and the degree of codification can vary considerably The status of standard languages, and the degree of codification can vary considerably They are typically national languages, usually with symbolic importance as representative of a particular nation-state, and they have often developed with the emergence of a particular state, cf. Joseph (1987) They are typically national languages, usually with symbolic importance as representative of a particular nation-state, and they have often developed with the emergence of a particular state, cf. Joseph (1987)

1.1Standard languages, national languages and the ‘ideology of standard’ Typically, a standard language emerges through processes of selection, codification, elaboration of function and acceptance Typically, a standard language emerges through processes of selection, codification, elaboration of function and acceptance Standard languages are ‘cultural artefacts’ Standard languages are ‘cultural artefacts’ Milroy & Milroy (1999) speak of the ‘ideology of standard’. Standard languages are often (falsely) seen as invariant and unchanging Milroy & Milroy (1999) speak of the ‘ideology of standard’. Standard languages are often (falsely) seen as invariant and unchanging

1.1Standard languages, national languages and the ‘ideology of standard’ However, all languages are subject to change and variation; no language is uniform, and attempts to establish canonical forms of language for all time (e.g. by language academies) are necessarily doomed However, all languages are subject to change and variation; no language is uniform, and attempts to establish canonical forms of language for all time (e.g. by language academies) are necessarily doomed And yet, the standard language is typically seen by a language community as the ‘best’, ‘most correct’ form of its language, and deviations from the norm it represents can be stigmatised And yet, the standard language is typically seen by a language community as the ‘best’, ‘most correct’ form of its language, and deviations from the norm it represents can be stigmatised

1.2 Language varieties: usage-dependent and user-dependent variation Nowadays, we speak about language varieties (rather than ‘dialects’, which is ambiguous, especially in the context of European languages) Nowadays, we speak about language varieties (rather than ‘dialects’, which is ambiguous, especially in the context of European languages) A particular variety is characterised by specific variants, forms of language which are variable A particular variety is characterised by specific variants, forms of language which are variable Variants may be phonetic, phonological, morphological, syntactic or lexical (examples from English: rhotic/non-rhotic; past/perfect (US vs. British); position of not; words for ‘to die’) Variants may be phonetic, phonological, morphological, syntactic or lexical (examples from English: rhotic/non-rhotic; past/perfect (US vs. British); position of not; words for ‘to die’)

1.2 Language varieties: usage-dependent and user-dependent variation Varieties (cf. Dr Morven Beaton-Thome’s lecture scheduled for Week 5) can be usage-dependent or user-dependent.

1.3 Usage-dependent variation (register variation): medium, subject matter, situation Usage-dependent variation is determined by the communicative situation Usage-dependent variation is determined by the communicative situation The forms used by native speakers are influenced by factors like subject matter (i.e. what they are talking about), medium (i.e. are they speaking or writing?) and situation (i.e. where they are saying it and who they are talking to) The forms used by native speakers are influenced by factors like subject matter (i.e. what they are talking about), medium (i.e. are they speaking or writing?) and situation (i.e. where they are saying it and who they are talking to)

1.3 Usage-dependent variation (register variation): medium, subject matter, situation Variation of this kind, which depends on the use to which the language is being put, is known as register variation Variation of this kind, which depends on the use to which the language is being put, is known as register variation A register is a variety of language, which is influenced by factors of this kind, e.g. colloquial, informal, formal, technical, etc. A register is a variety of language, which is influenced by factors of this kind, e.g. colloquial, informal, formal, technical, etc. Examples from Downes (1998) on the handout Examples from Downes (1998) on the handout

1.4 User-dependent variation: dialects, accents and sociolects User-dependent variation correlates with characteristics of the users, i.e. their regional or social origins or position User-dependent variation correlates with characteristics of the users, i.e. their regional or social origins or position Varieties typical of a particular region are commonly called dialects or accents, whilst varieties typical of particular social groups are known as sociolects or social dialects Varieties typical of a particular region are commonly called dialects or accents, whilst varieties typical of particular social groups are known as sociolects or social dialects There are also, less importantly, varieties typical of particular professions or trades (jargons) There are also, less importantly, varieties typical of particular professions or trades (jargons)

1.4 User-dependent variation: dialects, accents and sociolects In Britain, the terms ‘dialect’ and ‘accent’ are often used synonymously, but linguists make a distinction, in that accent involves pronunciation only, whereas dialect also involves grammar and lexis In Britain, the terms ‘dialect’ and ‘accent’ are often used synonymously, but linguists make a distinction, in that accent involves pronunciation only, whereas dialect also involves grammar and lexis

1.4 User-dependent variation: dialects, accents and sociolects; pluricentric languages 1.4 User-dependent variation: dialects, accents and sociolects; pluricentric languages In Britain, too, regional and social factors are interrelated (Trudgill’s triangle). The prestige spoken form (RP) has all the characteristics of a sociolect – it is the speech of the educated classes throughout the UK In Britain, too, regional and social factors are interrelated (Trudgill’s triangle). The prestige spoken form (RP) has all the characteristics of a sociolect – it is the speech of the educated classes throughout the UK We have in Britain – particularly in England – the Pygmalion effect, which means that all ‘dialects’ and ‘accents’ which deviate from this norm may be stigmatised We have in Britain – particularly in England – the Pygmalion effect, which means that all ‘dialects’ and ‘accents’ which deviate from this norm may be stigmatised

social variation regional variation lowest class: most localised accent highest class: RP

1.4 User-dependent variation: dialects, accents and sociolects It is vital to be aware that this pattern of variation and the values associated with it are very specific to British English It is vital to be aware that this pattern of variation and the values associated with it are very specific to British English Other languages do not have the association of dialect with low social class which is so typical of England. Italy is a case in point, with a ‘standard language’ which is essentially medieval Tuscan (and with a standardisation process which is still not complete), and ‘dialects’ which are widely used by all social classes and often have literary forms Other languages do not have the association of dialect with low social class which is so typical of England. Italy is a case in point, with a ‘standard language’ which is essentially medieval Tuscan (and with a standardisation process which is still not complete), and ‘dialects’ which are widely used by all social classes and often have literary forms

1.4 User-dependent variation: pluricentric languages 1.4 User-dependent variation: pluricentric languages An important feature of Spanish and Portuguese is that, like English (and to a lesser extent German), they are ‘pluricentric languages’, with competing standards in the various countries in which they are spoken – Brazilian and European Portuguese are quite distinct, as are Iberian and much of South American Spanish An important feature of Spanish and Portuguese is that, like English (and to a lesser extent German), they are ‘pluricentric languages’, with competing standards in the various countries in which they are spoken – Brazilian and European Portuguese are quite distinct, as are Iberian and much of South American Spanish Brazilian Portuguese is not a ‘dialect’ of Portuguese, any more than American or New Zealand English are ‘dialects’ of English. They are effectively distinct standard varieties with autonomous norms, which may or may not be codified Brazilian Portuguese is not a ‘dialect’ of Portuguese, any more than American or New Zealand English are ‘dialects’ of English. They are effectively distinct standard varieties with autonomous norms, which may or may not be codified

2. Variation and the translator 2.1 Identifying varieties in the source language 2.2 Establishing the cultural significance of variation in the source language text 2.3 Identifying parallel varieties in the target language 2.4 Resolving cultural dissimilarity – lost in translation?

2.1 Identifying varieties in the source language 2.1 Identifying varieties in the source language You see something that looks unusual in the source language. How can you tell what it is? You see something that looks unusual in the source language. How can you tell what it is?  Use any clues given by the author – with some common sense, you can normally work out what the unusual bit of language is meant to represent (see Example E)  If not, try asking a native speaker (But do they always know? See Example A and below)  Has tha fell out wi’ im?  Dinna gan doun their?  My hair wants washed.

2.1 Identifying varieties in the source language 2.1 Identifying varieties in the source language  Research the work in the literature (on the Web!) if you can’t find the answers any other way

2.2 Establishing the cultural significance of variation in the source language text 2.2 Establishing the cultural significance of variation in the source language text Things are different outside Britain! Things are different outside Britain! Speaking dialect (i.e. a particular regional variety) does not necessarily identify an individual as being uneducated and/or of a lower social class (or make them a figure of fun) Speaking dialect (i.e. a particular regional variety) does not necessarily identify an individual as being uneducated and/or of a lower social class (or make them a figure of fun) Although authors sometimes want to do precisely that (e.g. Examples E, C and G), there are other interpretations, so think carefully what the variety is meant to convey in each case, e.g. Although authors sometimes want to do precisely that (e.g. Examples E, C and G), there are other interpretations, so think carefully what the variety is meant to convey in each case, e.g.  Brecht’s Mother Courage   Examples D and F

2.3 Identifying parallel varieties in the target language Careful here! You could end up with unintended effects when, say, attempting to replace one city variety with another (e.g. Dublin with Berlin) – adaptation may work, but can be risky Example B: country girl (Brabants), rural speech could work in English and German, but not French (patois associated with old people and often not understood by the general population)

2.3 Identifying parallel varieties in the target language Example A: French generally favours the standard variety and non-standard language is often written in fiction as if it were standard (See Example A and consider the furore caused by Example D)

2.4 Resolving cultural dissimilarity – lost in translation? 2.4 Resolving cultural dissimilarity – lost in translation? So what do you do? Weigh up the general cultural significance of the variety used, the author’s specific intention and the perception of your target audience Adaptation (e.g. Example G) Amplification (e.g. Examples E and F) Live with the fact that some nuances simply can’t be translated

References A. A. Samuel Richardson ( ), Clarissa, Or, The History of a Young Lady (1748) B. B. Cees Noteboom (born1933), Rituelen (1980) C. C. Honoré de Balzac ( ), Le cousin Pons (1847) D. D. Raymond Queneau ( ), Zazie dans le métro (1959)

E. E. Thomas Mann ( ), Buddenbrooks (1901), trans. by H.T. Lowe-Porter (1924) F. F. Mario Vargas Llosa (born 1936), La tía Julia y el escribidor (1977), trans. by Helen R. Lane (1982)