Policing: Issues and Challenges 8 Policing: Issues and Challenges

Police Subculture The set of informal values which characterize the police force as a distinct community with a common identity Informalization Ongoing May emphasize a different set of values compared to mainstream society Often extends to personal lives

The Police Personality Authoritarian Cynical Secret Efficient Suspicious Hostile Conservative Prejudiced Insecure Loyal Individualistic Dogmatic Honorable

Police Corruption The abuse of police authority for personal or organizational gain Behavioral deviation from an acceptable ethical standard “Slippery slope” perspective Knapp Commission New York City Police Department in the 1970s

Categories of Corruption Grass eaters Accept bribes or goods in exchange for not issuing tickets, making arrests, etc. Do not initiate, but don’t refuse offer Meat eaters Solicit bribes or take a share of the drugs they confiscate to sell for their own profit, etc. Initiate activity

Hierarchy of Police Corruption Violent crime Denial of civil rights Criminal enterprise Property crimes Major bribes Role malfeasance Above inconvenient laws Minor bribes Playing favorites Gratuities

Response to Issues of Police Corruption Increased police professionalism All levels Hiring Increased pay Ethics training Continuing education Drug testing

Internal Review Committee Internal affairs The branch of a police organization tasked with investigating charges of wrongdoing involving members of the department Police department bureau internally conducts the investigation into the allegations of wrongdoing When necessary, an outside agency can conduct the inquiry

Internal Affairs Officers may invoke their Garrity rights, which are protections that officers have against self-incrimination in the face of questioning Protect officers themselves when being questioned by representatives of their department’s internal affairs division or by their superior officers

The Dangers of Police Work Police and alcohol Influence of subculture on drinking Police and family problems Stress of job affects family members Police and suicide High suicide rate Dealing with the stress of policing Long-term stress

The Dangers of Police Work Violence Suspicious material Human bites Spitting Urine/feces Cuts/puncture wounds Biological weapons CPR/First aid Body removal Casual contact Contact with blood or body fluids Contact with dried blood

Stress Reduction Exercise and diet Meditation Abdominal breathing Music Prayer Peer support

Police Use of Force The use of physical restraint by a police officer when dealing with a member of the public Reasonable and necessary Guidelines determined by department

Use of Force 43.5 million people nationwide have face-to-face contact with the police over a typical 12-month period Approximately 1.6%, or about 700,000, of these people become subject to the use of force or the threat of force Matthew R. Durose, Erica L. Smith, and Patrick A. Langan, Contacts between Police and the Public, 2005 (Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2007).

Police Use of Force Continuum Officer presence Verbal commands Soft techniques Hard techniques Deadly force

Less-Lethal Weapons Designed to disable, capture, or immobilize, but not kill Stun guns Tasers Rubber bullets Beanbag projectiles Pepper spray Snare nets fired from shotguns (in development) Disabling sticky foam (in development)

Police Use of Force Excessive force Deadly force Application of an amount and/or frequency of force greater than required to compel compliance from a willing/unwilling subject Deadly force Force likely to cause death or great bodily harm The intentional use of a firearm or other instrument resulting in a high probability of death.

Racial Profiling When police officers act on a person’s race, ethnicity, or national origin instead of the person’s actions or information that identifies the person as a suspect Pre-9/11 vs. post-9/11

Police Liability for Constitutional Violations Civil remedies Criminal remedies Non-judicial remedies Exclusionary rule remedies

Civil Liability Potential responsibility for payment of damages or other court-ordered enforcement as a result of a ruling in a lawsuit Federal State Different from criminal liability

Common Sources of Lawsuits against Police Assault High media visibility Most well-known Battery False imprisonment Arrest without just cause Malicious prosecution Negligent or malicious actions

Federal Lawsuits 1983 lawsuit Bivens action Denies others their constitutional right to life, liberty, or property without due process of law Bivens action A civil suit brought against federal government officials for denying the constitutional rights of others