Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings PowerPoint ® Lecture Presentations for Biology Eighth Edition Neil Campbell and Jane Reece Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp Chapter 40 Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function

Overview: Diverse Forms, Common Challenges Anatomy- _____________________________________ Physiology- _____________________________________ The comparative study of animals reveals that form and function are closely correlated Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 40-1

Concept 40.1: Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization Size and shape affect the way an animal interacts with its environment Many different animal body plans have evolved and are determined by the ____________ Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Physical Constraints on Animal Size and Shape The ability to perform certain actions depends on an animal’s shape, size, and environment Physical laws impose constraints on animal size and shape Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig (a) Tuna (b) Penguin (c) Seal

Exchange with the Environment An animal’s size and shape directly affect how it exchanges energy and materials with its surroundings Exchange occurs as substances dissolved in the aqueous medium diffuse and are transported across the cells’ plasma membranes Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig Exchange 0.15 mm (a) Single cell 1.5 mm (b) Two layers of cells Exchange Mouth Gastrovascular cavity

Fig cm Nutrients Digestive system Lining of small intestine Mouth Food External environment Animal body CO 2 O2O2 Circulatory system Heart Respiratory system Cells Interstitial fluid Excretory system Anus Unabsorbed matter (feces) Metabolic waste products (nitrogenous waste) Kidney tubules 10 µm 50 µm Lung tissue

Complex body plans have benefits! For example, – _______________________ Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Table 40-1

Different tissues have different structures that are suited to their functions Tissues are classified into four main categories: Tissue Structure and Function Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Epithelial Tissue Epithelial tissue- ________________________________________ ________________________________________ The shape of epithelial cells may be _________(like dice), ____________(like bricks on end), or _____________(like floor tiles) The arrangement of epithelial cells may be ______ (single cell layer), ____________(multiple tiers of cells), or _____________________(a single layer of cells of varying length) Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 40-5a Epithelial Tissue Cuboidal epithelium Simple columnar epithelium Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium Stratified squamous epithelium Simple squamous epithelium

Fig. 40-5b Apical surface Basal surface Basal lamina 40 µm

Connective Tissue Connective tissue _______________________________________ There are three types of connective tissue fiber, all made of protein: – _______________ provide strength and flexibility – _______________stretch and snap back to their original length – _______________join connective tissue to adjacent tissues Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Connective tissue contains cells, including – ______________that secrete the protein of extracellular fibers – ______________that are involved in the immune system Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 40-5c Connective Tissue Collagenous fiber Loose connective tissue Elastic fiber 120 µm Cartilage Chondrocytes 100 µm Chondroitin sulfate Adipose tissue Fat droplets 150 µm White blood cells 55 µm Plasma Red blood cells Blood Nuclei Fibrous connective tissue 30 µm Osteon Bone Central canal 700 µm

Fig. 40-5d Collagenous fiber 120 µm Elastic fiber Loose connective tissue

Fig. 40-5e Nuclei Fibrous connective tissue 30 µm

Fig. 40-5f Osteon Central canal Bone 700 µm

Fig. 40-5g Chondrocytes Chondroitin sulfate Cartilage 100 µm

Fig. 40-5h Fat droplets Adipose tissue 150 µm

Fig. 40-5i White blood cells Plasma Red blood cells 55 µm Blood

Muscle Tissue Muscle tissue _____________________________________ _____________________________________ It is divided in the vertebrate body into three types: – ________________, or striated muscle, is responsible for voluntary movement – ________________is responsible for involuntary body activities – ________________is responsible for contraction of the heart Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 40-5j Muscle Tissue 50 µm Skeletal muscle Multiple nuclei Muscle fiber Sarcomere 100 µm Smooth muscle Cardiac muscle Nucleus Muscle fibers 25 µm Nucleus Intercalated disk

Nervous Tissue Nervous tissue _____________________________________ _____________________________________ Nervous tissue contains: – ________________, or nerve cells, that transmit nerve impulses – ________________that help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 40-5n Glial cells Nervous Tissue 15 µm Dendrites Cell body Axon Neuron Axons Blood vessel 40 µm

Fig. 40-5o Dendrites Cell body Axon 40 µm Neuron

Fig. 40-5p Glial cells Axons Blood vessel Glial cells and axons 15 µm

Coordination and Control Control and coordination within a body depend on two organ systems: – ________________ Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig Stimulus Hormone Endocrine cell Signal travels everywhere via the bloodstream. Blood vessel Response (a) Signaling by hormones Stimulus Neuron Axon Signal Signal travels along axon to a specific location. Signal Axons Response (b) Signaling by neurons

Fig. 40-6a Stimulus Endocrine cell Hormone Signal travels everywhere via the bloodstream. Blood vessel Response (a) Signaling by hormones

Fig. 40-6b Stimulus Neuron Axon Signal Signal travels along axon to a specific location. Signal Axons Response (b) Signaling by neurons

Concept 40.2: Feedback control loops maintain the internal environment in many animals Animals manage their internal environment by ______________ or ______________ to the external environment Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig River otter (temperature regulator) Largemouth bass (temperature conformer) Body temperature (°C) Ambient (environmental) temperature (ºC)

Homeostasis Organisms use homeostasis to maintain a “steady state” or internal balance regardless of external environment Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

For a given variable, fluctuations above or below a set point serve as a stimulus; these are detected by a sensor and trigger a response The response returns the variable to the set point Mechanisms of Homeostasis Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig Response: Heater turned off Stimulus: Control center (thermostat) reads too hot Room temperature decreases Set point: 20ºC Room temperature increases Stimulus: Control center (thermostat) reads too cold Response: Heater turned on

Feedback Loops in Homeostasis Negative feedback: _____________________________________ _____________________________________ vs. Positive feedback: _____________________________________ _____________________________________ Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Alterations in Homeostasis _____________________________________ Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Concept 40.3: Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function, and behavior _____________________ is the process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

(a) A walrus, an endotherm (b) A lizard, an ectotherm

Fig RadiationEvaporation ConvectionConduction

Fig Epidermis Dermis Hypodermis Adipose tissue Blood vessels Hair Sweat pore Muscle Nerve Sweat gland Oil gland Hair follicle

Five general adaptations help animals thermoregulate: – _______________________ Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig Canada gooseBottlenose dolphin Artery Vein Blood flow 33º35ºC 27º 30º 18º 20º 10º9º

Fig

Fig RESULTS Contractions per minute O 2 consumption (mL O 2 /hr) per kg

Fig PREFLIGHT WARM-UP FLIGHT Thorax Abdomen Time from onset of warm-up (min) Temperature (ºC)

Birds and mammals can vary their insulation to acclimatize to seasonal temperature changes When temperatures are subzero, some ectotherms produce “antifreeze” compounds to prevent ice formation in their cells Acclimatization in Thermoregulation Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig Sweat glands secrete sweat, which evaporates, cooling the body. Thermostat in hypothalamus activates cooling mechanisms. Blood vessels in skin dilate: capillaries fill; heat radiates from skin. Increased body temperature Decreased body temperature Thermostat in hypothalamus activates warming mechanisms. Blood vessels in skin constrict, reducing heat loss. Skeletal muscles contract; shivering generates heat. Body temperature increases; thermostat shuts off warming mechanisms. Homeostasis: Internal temperature of 36–38°C Body temperature decreases; thermostat shuts off cooling mechanisms.

Concept 40.4: Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity, and environment _______________ is the overall flow and transformation of energy in an animal It determines how much food an animal needs It is affected by an animal’s – __________________ Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig Organic molecules in food External environment Animal body Digestion and absorption Nutrient molecules in body cells Carbon skeletons Cellular respiration ATP Heat Energy lost in feces Energy lost in nitrogenous waste Heat Biosynthesis Heat Cellular work

___________________is the amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time Quantifying Energy Use Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig

Minimum Metabolic Rate and Thermoregulation ____________________________ is the metabolic rate of an endotherm at rest at a “comfortable” temperature ____________________________ is the metabolic rate of an ectotherm at rest at a specific temperature Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Ectothermy vs. endothermy Size Activity Influences on Metabolic Rate Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Different species use energy and materials in food in different ways, depending on their environment Energy Budgets Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig Annual energy expenditure (kcal/hr) 60-kg female human from temperate climate 800,000 Basal (standard) metabolism Reproduction Thermoregulation Growth Activity 340,000 4-kg male Adélie penguin from Antarctica (brooding) 4, kg female deer mouse from temperate North America 8,000 4-kg female eastern indigo snake EndothermsEctotherm

Fig a Annual energy expenditure (kcal/hr) 60-kg female human from temperate climate 800,000 Basal (standard) metabolism Reproduction Thermoregulation Growth Activity

Fig b Reproduction Thermoregulation Activity Basal (standard) metabolism 4-kg male Adélie penguin from Antarctica (brooding) Annual energy expenditure (kcal/yr) 340,000

Fig c Reproduction Thermoregulation Basal (standard) metabolism Activity 4, kg female deer mouse from temperate North America Annual energy expenditure (kcal/yr)

Fig d Reproduction Growth Activity Basal (standard) metabolism 4-kg female eastern indigo snake 8,000 Annual energy expenditure (kcal/yr)

Torpor and Energy Conservation Torpor: _____________________________________ _____________________________________ Hibernation: _____________________________________ _____________________________________ Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig Additional metabolism that would be necessary to stay active in winter Actual metabolism Arousals Body temperature Outside temperature Burrow temperature Metabolic rate (kcal per day) Temperature (°C) JuneAugustOctoberDecemberFebruaryApril –15 –10 –

Fig. 40-UN1 Homeostasis Stimulus: Perturbation/stress Response/effector Control center Sensor/receptor

Fig. 40-UN2

You should now be able to: 1.Distinguish among the following sets of terms: collagenous, elastic, and reticular fibers; regulator and conformer; positive and negative feedback; basal and standard metabolic rates; torpor, hibernation, estivation, and daily torpor 2.Relate structure with function and identify diagrams of the following animal tissues: epithelial, connective tissue (six types), muscle tissue (three types), and nervous tissue Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

3.Compare and contrast the nervous and endocrine systems 4.Define thermoregulation and explain how endotherms and ectotherms manage their heat budgets 5.Describe how a countercurrent heat exchanger may function to retain heat within an animal body 6.Define bioenergetics and biosynthesis 7.Define metabolic rate and explain how it can be determined for animals Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings