© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 1 Basic Principles of Learning 6

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 2 Definition of Learning Relative permanent change in behavior brought about through experience or interactions with the environment –Not all changes result from learning –Change in behavior not always immediate Years of isolating and studying behavior produced different principles of learning Basic Principles of Learning

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 3 Classical Conditioning: Learning by Association Ivan Pavlov in Russia –Nobel Prize for saliva in digestion –Reflexive response controlled by arbitrary stimulus (salivation when attendant approached) Association - key element –First recognized by Aristotle –Pavlov: classical conditioning was form of learning through association Basic Principles of Learning

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 4 Container of meat powder Observation screen Revolving drum for recording responses Device to count drops of saliva Tube for collection of saliva Pavlov’s Experiment

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 5 Pavlov’s Experiment CR (salivation) UCR (meat powder) Before classical conditioning: initially, the metronome is a neutral stimulus that does not elicit the response of salivation But the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) can elicit the unconditioned response (UCR) UCR (salivation) Neutral stimulus (metronome) B A

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 6 Test of conditioning: after classical conditioning, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits the conditioned response (CR) of salivation Neutral stimulus (metronome) CS (metronome) Conditioning procedure: during the classical conditioning procedure, the neutral stimulus is presented in association with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit the unconditioned response (UCR) UCR (salivation) UCR (meat powder) CR (salivation) C D

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 7 Pavlov’s Experiments Systematic, effective, precise studies Association of two stimuli The more frequently the metronome and food are associated, the more often the metronome will elicit salivation Timing of association is highly important –Longer time intervals were less effective; almost no learning occurred Basic Principles of Learning

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 8 Number of drops of saliva elicited by metronome alone Number of times metronome and meat powder were presented together Pavlov’s Studies: the more often the metronome was associated in time with meat powder, the more effective in eliciting saliva

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 9 Terminology of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) –Elicits response without learning Unconditioned response (UCR) –Unlearned, inborn response Conditioned stimulus (CS) –Acquires ability to elicit after paired association with unconditioned stimulus Conditioned response (CR) –Elicited by conditioned stimulus Basic Principles of Learning

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 10 CS UCS (meat powder) (metronome) CR UCR (Salivation) Application of Terminology to Pavlov’s Experiment

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 11 Definition of Classical Conditioning Form of learning in which –CS followed by UCS elicits UCR –Pairing of CS and UCS allows CS to elicit CR almost identical or similar to UCR Considered learning because –New behavior acquired –Old behavior elicited by new stimulus –Does not depend on behavior of individual Basic Principles of Learning

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 12 Importance of Classical Conditioning Watson and Rayner –Made classical conditioning famous with Little Albert experiments Learned to fear rats - unethical today Watson and Jones –Counterconditioning: reversing the CR Useful in –Explaining aspects of human health –Explaining sexual fetishes and arousals Basic Principles of Learning

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 13 Watson and Raynor Study CS UCS (rat) (loud noise) CR UCR (fear)

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 14 Operant Conditioning: Learning from the Consequences of Your Behavior Form of learning –Consequences of behavior lead to change based on probability of consequences occurring Thorndike and the puzzle box –Researching animal intelligence –Law of effect: consequences determine response occurring in future Basic Principles of Learning

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 15 Operant Conditioning Three types of desirable and undesirable consequences that influence behavior –Positive reinforcement –Negative reinforcement –Punishment Basic Principles of Learning

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 16 Positive Reinforcement Positive consequences – behavior occurs more frequently (ie: praise given) Uses in teaching –Hospitalized schizophrenics more normal behaviors –Employees within the workplace Operant response – changed behavior becomes more frequent Basic Principles of Learning

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide Percent of interaction spent with Children Days Adults Use of Positive Reinforcement Increases Time Spent With Other Children

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 18 Positive Reinforcement Two important issues –Timing of reinforcer following response Delay of reinforcement – the greater the delay between response and reinforcer, the slower the learning –Consistency in delivery of reinforcement Schedules of reinforcement Basic Principles of Learning

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 19 Reinforcement Positive reinforcers – learned and inborn Primary reinforcement –Innately reinforcing –Examples: food, water, warmth, physical activity Secondary reinforcement –Learned through classical conditioning –Examples: rewards, money, praise Basic Principles of Learning

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 20 Primary reinforcer Secondary reinforcer

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 21 Schedules of Positive Reinforcement Continuous – reinforcer for every response Schedules –Fixed ratio – reinforcer given after each specified or fixed number of responses –Variable ratio – reinforcement after varying number of responses Basic Principles of Learning

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 22 Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio Cumulative responses Time Cumulative responses Time Patterns of Behavior Produced by Reinforcement

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 23 Schedules of Positive Reinforcement Schedules –Fixed interval schedule – reinforcement based on time (ie: every 2 hours) –Variable interval schedule – reinforcement after variable amount of time (ie: reinforced after 1 hour, then after 4 minutes, then after 35 minutes like slot machine gambling) Basic Principles of Learning

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 24 Time Cumulative responses Fixed Interval Variable Interval Patterns of Behavior Produced by Reinforcement

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 25 Shaping Reinforcing steps toward targeted behavior or method of successive approximations Skinner – Skinner box –Rat pushes lever to get food after Rewarded for steps of nearing, touching, and pushing on lever Used for children and those with developmental handicaps Basic Principles of Learning

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 26 Operant Conditioning Electric grid Food cup Dispenser tube Pellet dispenser Lever Signal lights Speaker To shock generator

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 27 Negative Reinforcement Something unpleasant, aversive, undesired is removed by behavior or does not happen at all –Not the same as punishment –Not a bad habit being reinforced –Very powerful method of reinforcement Escape conditioning – negative event stops Avoidance conditioning – negative event avoided Basic Principles of Learning

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 28 Punishment Consequence of behavior is negative –Behavior has been punished –Behavior frequency will decrease –When appropriately used – ethical and valuable tool for discouraging undesired behavior Physical punishment used by society, parents, and others –has dangers –Raises ethical questions Basic Principles of Learning

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 29 Dangers of Punishment Often reinforcing to the punisher Often has generalizing effect on the individual May lead to a worse problem (learning to dislike punisher, reacting aggressively towards others) Criticism trap – belief that punishment is ineffective leads to using criticism (criticism sometimes reinforces negative behavior) Punishment may suppress behavior temporarily but is not long term solution Basic Principles of Learning

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 30 Guideline for Use of Punishment Do not use physical punishment Punish inappropriate behavior immediately Positively reinforce appropriate behavior Clarify what behavior is being punished and why (separate the person from the behavior) Do not mix punishment with rewards Do not back down once you begin to punish Basic Principles of Learning

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 31 Basic Principles of Learning Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Classical conditioning involves –Association between two stimuli –Reflexive, involuntary behaviors –UCS making behavior happen Operant conditioning involves –Association between response and consequence –More complicated voluntary behaviors –Reinforcing consequence occurring only if desired response is given

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 32 Basic Principles of Learning Stimulus Discrimination and Generalization Stimulus discrimination – deciding between appropriate and inappropriate occasions for a response –Learned by humans and animals Stimulus generalization – opposite of stimulus discrimination –Similarity of two or more stimuli

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide Mean total responses Wavelength Stimulus Generalization and Reinforcement of a Pigeon’s Pecking

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 34 Basic Principles of Learning Extinction: Learning When to Quit Extinction –learned response stops occurring because original source of learning was removed Classical conditioning –Fear is very difficult to extinguish –CR extinguished if CS is repeatedly presented but UCS is no longer paired with it Operant conditioning –Extinction results from change in consequence

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 35 Basic Principles of Learning Extinction Differences between classical conditioning and operant conditioning Operant conditioning –Early stage extinction leads to frustration –Partial reinforcement effect: schedule and type of reinforcement greatly influence extinction Fastest extinction - continuous reinforcement –Response prevention: extinguishes avoidance responses quickly

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 36 Basic Principles of Learning Spontaneous Recovery and Disinhibition Course of extinction not smooth – learned response occurs often before extinction Spontaneous recovery –Response reappears during extinction Disinhibition –Presentation of intense, unrelated stimulus can cause strength of response to return –Pavlov: no response is unlearned, just inhibited

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 37 Basic Principles of Learning Theoretical Interpretations of Learning Pavlov – Neural connections between brain areas of learning and responding acquired Other psychologists –Cognition plays central role in learning Place learning and cognitive map Latent learning Insight learning – sudden problem solving Learning set – learned to learn insightfully

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 38 Monkeys and Impact of Experience Percent of correct responses Trials 1-8 Problems

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 39 Basic Principles of Learning Modeling: Learning by Watching Others Bandura – people learn through modeling –Demonstrates role of cognition in learning –Cognitive learning occurs by watching before behavior occurs Learn skills Use of appropriate behavior in given situation Reduce inhibitions Learn what behaviors are reinforced

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 40 Basic Principles of Learning Modeling Powerful form of learning Vicarious reinforcement – likely to imitate reinforced behaviors Vicarious punishment – likely not to imitate behaviors that are punished High status, attractive, likeable, successful models more likely imitated –Concerns about television, movies, other media

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 41 Basic Principles of Learning Biological Factors in Learning Learning influenced several ways –Physical ability limitations (ie: fish cannot fly) –Individual differences – (ie: fear inhibitions) –Process of evolution – useful fears and survival mechanisms Biological preparedness to learn Learned taste aversion ( used on humans and animals)

© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved Slide 42 The End 6 Basic Principles of Learning