Conducting and Reading Research in Health and Human Performance

Chapter 1 The Nature and Purpose of Research

Consumer of Research Information Advil –“Nothing is proven more effective or longer lasting than Advil.” Oral-B Toothbrush –“You can buy a fancier toothbrush. But you can’t buy a more effective one.” Duracell Battery –“No other battery lasts longer.” Revlon Skin Cream –“In just one week, fine dry lines and wrinkles are reduced by over 38%.”

Essence of a Profession The pursuit of knowledge and its dissemination is a unique characteristic of a “profession” Research is the basis for advancing the body of knowledge of a profession

What is your vision of a researcher????????

Research Defined Not really a universal definition –A structured way of answering questions, a systematic method of inquiry –Research is nothing more or less than finding answers to a question in a logical, orderly, and systematic fashion Two key components –Systematic in nature –Focuses on a question of interest

Sources of Knowledge Myth or tradition Authority Observation or personal experience Logic or deductive reasoning Scientific inquiry –Objective –Data Gathering –Controlled Nature

Deductive Reasoning Uses logic that moves from general to specific Model for review of literature... enables the researcher to organize and synthesize available information, theorize about the problem, and deduce hypotheses to be tested by the research Categorical Syllogism – Every mammal has lungs. All rabbits are mammals. Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.

Inductive Reasoning Uses logic that moves from the specific to general Fundamental principle of scientific method... based upon observations of a small group, generalizations are made to a larger population Categorical Syllogism –Every rabbit that has been observed has lungs. Therefore, every rabbit has lungs Imperfect vs. Perfect Induction

The Scientific Method A way of solving problems and acquiring knowledge that involves both deductive and inductive reasoning in a systematic approach to obtaining information

Stages of the Scientific Method Question Identified Hypothesis Formed Research Plan Data Collected Results Analyzed Conclusions New Questions Arise

Stages of the Research Process Question defined - this involves selecting the question and precisely defining the problem Hypothesis stated – literature reviewed to provide rationale for study and basis for anticipated solution or predicted outcome Research plan developed – methodology is developed which will permit examination of stated problem and to test hypothesis Data are collected – the research plan is executed and the researcher will test, measure, or observe the phenomena in question in order to gather data Results analyzed – appropriate statistical analysis is applied to the collected data in order to base a decision to confirm or refute the hypotheses (new questions often arise) Conclusions – the findings of the research are interpreted based upon the data analysis, thus providing answer to original question

Research and Theory Through scientific inquiry (research), facts are discovered –The interpretation or explanation of these facts is the basis for theory, which is a belief about how things relate to each other –Theory is not law, but could become law through additional research and experimentation –A theory establishes a cause and effect relationship between variables for the purpose of explaining and predicting phenomena (Best & Kahn, 1998)

Theory in Research Ultimate goal of science is the formation of theory based upon the synthesis and interpretation of facts and information HHP research has often neglected theory Greater attention should be given to the theoretical basis of research in HHP and the explanation of facts and relationships

Types of Research Several research classifications have been proposed –Basic vs. Applied –Quantitative vs. Qualitative –Experimental vs. Non-experimental None of the various research categories are mutually exclusive

Basic Research Purpose is to discover new or fundamental knowledge Practical application is NOT a goal Usually in highly controlled laboratory settings

Applied Research Purpose is to find answers to practical problems Practical in nature... most common in HHP Inferences or generalizations are made to the intended population Action Research –similar to applied research except in a local setting –very pragmatic and less controlled –no interest in generalizing findings

Quantitative Research Positivist paradigm Traditional model of research Hypothesis directed Based on empirical evidence Measured with numbers Analyzed statistically Seeking generalizations

Qualitative Research Naturalistic paradigm Descriptive in nature Reliance on qualitative, non-numerical data More subjective approach Variety of methodologies –in depth interviews –direct observation Situational specific … little generalizability

Experimental Research The purpose of experimental research is to investigate cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating certain variables to determine their effect on another variable –attempts to establish causality –manipulation of independent variable –control of extraneous variables is vital –often uses a control group –often uses randomization procedures –major limitation is often unnatural environment, thus limiting generalizability

Non-Experimental Research Tends to observe, analyze, and describe what exists rather than manipulating the variable under study Lack of control is often cited as a limitation Various types common in HHP –Causal-comparative –Descriptive –Correlational –Historical

Casual-Comparative Research Seeks to investigate cause-and-effect relationships similar to experimental research However, researcher cannot manipulate the independent variable because it is something the subject already has –Attribute or organismic variable Gender Ethnicity Medical condition Also called “ex post facto” research

Descriptive Research Seeks to describe specific phenomena or characteristics of a particular group of subjects –Answers the question “what is” –No manipulation of an independent variable Wide range of methodologies –Surveys –Direct measurement –Observation –Interviews

Correlational Research Seeks to determine whether, and to what extent, a relationship exists between two or more variables –No manipulation of an independent variable –May be descriptive or predictive in nature Cannot establish causality

Historical Research Seeks to explore events and information from the past in order to provide a better understanding of the present with implications for the future –Answers the question “what was” Limited to synthesis and interpretation of data that already exists –Primary sources –Secondary sources