A Review of Some Fundamental Mathematical and Statistical Concepts UnB Mestrado em Ciências Contábeis Prof. Otávio Medeiros, MSc, PhD
Characteristics of probability distributions Random variable: can take on any value from a given set Most commonly used distribution: normal or Gaussian Normal probability density function:
Characteristics of probability distributions The mean of a random variable is known as its expected value E(y). Properties of expected values: –E(c) = c c = constant –E(cy) = c E(y) –E(cy + d) = c E(y) + d d = constant –If y and z are independent, E(yz) = E(y) E(z)
Characteristics of probability distributions The variance of a random variable is var(y). Properties of var operator: var(c) = 0 –. –If y and z are independent,
Characteristics of probability distributions The covariance between 2 random variables is cov(y,z). Properties of cov operator: –If y and z are independent, cov(y,z) = 0 –If c, d, e, and f are constants
Characteristics of probability distributions If a random sample of size T: y 1, y 2,..., y n is drawn from a normally distributed population with mean and variance , the sample mean is also normally distributed with mean and variance /T. Central limit theorem: sampling distribution of the mean of any random sample tends to the normal distribution with mean as sample size
Properties of logarithms Logs can have any base, but in finance and economics the neperian or natural log is more usual. Its base is the number e = 2, ln(xy) = ln(x) + ln(y) ln (x/y) = ln(x) – ln(y) ln(y c ) = c ln(y) ln(1) = 0 ln(1/y) = ln(1) – ln(y) = – ln(y)
Differential calculus The effect of the rate of change of one variable on the rate of change of another is measured by the derivative. If y = f(x) the derivative of y w.r.t x is dy/dx or f’(x) measures the instantaneous rate of change of y wrt x
Differential calculus Rules: The derivative of a constant is zero If y = 10, dy/dx = 0 If y = 3x + 2, dy/dx = 3 If y = c x n, dy/dx = cnx n-1 E.g.: y = 4x 3, dy/dx = 12 x 2
Differential calculus Rules: The derivative of a sum is equal to the sum of the derivatives of the individual parts: –E.g. If y = f(x)+g(x), dy/dx = f’(x)+g’(x) The derivative of the log of x is given by 1/x –d(log(x))/dx = 1/x The derivative of the log of a function: – d(log(f(x)))/dx=f’(x)/f(x) –E.g. d(log(x 3 +2x-1))=(3x 2 +2)/(x 3 +2x-1)
Differential calculus Rules: The derivative of e x = e x The derivative of the e f(x) = f’(x)e f(x) If y = f(x 1, x 2,..., x n ), the differentiation of y wrt only one variable is the partial differentiation: –E.g.
Differential calculus The maximum or minimum of a function wrt a variable can be found setting the 1st derivative f’(x) equal to zero. Second order condition: –If f”(x)>0 minimum –If f”(x)<0 maximum
Matrices A Matrix is a collection or array of numbers Size of a matrix is given by number of rows and columns R x C If a matrix has only one row, it is a row vector If a matrix has only one column, it is a column vector If R = C the matrix is a square matrix
Definitions Matrix is a rectangular array of real numbers with R rows and C columns. are matrix elements.
Definitions Dimension of a matrix: R x C. Matrix 1 x 1 is a scalar. Matrix R x 1 is a column vector. Matrix 1 x C is a row vector. If R = C, the matrix is square. Sum of elements of leading diagonal = trace. Diagonal matrix : square matrix with all elements off the leading diagonal equal to zero. Identity matrix: diagonal matrix with all elements in the leading diagonal equal to one. Zero matrix: all elements are zero.
Definitions Rank of a matrix: is given by the maximum number of linearly independent rows or columns contained in the matrix, e.g.:
Matrix Operations Equality: A = B if and only if A and B have the same size and a ij = b ij i, j. Addition of matrices: A+B= C if and only if A and B have the same size and a ij + b ij = c ij i, j.
Matrix operations Multiplication of a scalar by a matrix: k.A = k.[a ij ], i.e. every element of the matrix is multiplied by the scalar.
Matrix operations Multiplication of matrices: if A is m x n and B is n x p, then the product of the 2 matrices is A.B = C, where C is a m x p matrix with elements: Example: Note: A.B B.A
Transpose of a matrix matrix transpose: if A is m x n, then the transpose of A is n x m, i.e.:
Properties of transpose matrices (A+B)+C=A+(B+C) (A.B).C=A(B.C)
Square matrices : Identity matrix I: Note: A.I = I.A = A, where A has the same size as I.
Square matrices : Diagonal matrix:
Square matrices: Scalar matrix = diagonal matrix, when n. Zero matrix: A + 0 = A; A x 0 = 0.
Trace: If A is m x n and B is n x m, then AB and BA are square matrices and tr(AB) = tr (BA)
Determinants matrix 2 x 2:
Determinants matrix 3 x 3:
Determinants Matrix 3 x 3: Kramer’s rule
Inverse matrix The inverse of a square matrix A, named A -1, is the matrix which pre or post multiplied by A gives the identity matrix. B = A -1 if and only if BA = AB = I Matrix A has an inverse if and only if det A 0 (i.e. A is non singular). (A.B) -1 = B -1.A -1 (A -1 )’=(A’) -1 if A é symmetrical and non singular, then A -1 is symmetrical. If det A 0 and A is a square matrix of size n, then A has rank n.
Steps for finding an inverse matrix Calculation of the determinant: Kramer’s rule or cofactor matrix. Minor of the element a ij is the determinant of the submatrix obtained after exclusion of the i-th row and j-th column. Cofactor is the minor multiplied by (-1) i+j,
Steps for finding an inverse matrix Laplace expansion: take any row or column and get the determinant by multiplying the products of each element of row or columns by its respective cofactor. Cofactor matrix: matrix where each element is substituted by its cofactor.
Example 2 x 2 matrix :
Example 3 x 3 matrix :
The eigenvalues of a matrix Let be a p x p square matrix and let c denote a p x 1 non-zero vector, and let denote a set of scalars. is called a characteristic root of the matrix if it is possible to write: c = I p c where I p is an identity matrix, and hence ( – I p ) c = 0
The eigenvalues of a matrix Since c 0 the matrix ( – I p ) must be singular (zero determinant) – I p = 0
The eigenvalues of a matrix Example: Characteristic roots = eigenvalues The sum of eigenvalues = trace of the matrix The product of the eigenvalues = determinant The number of non-zero eigenvalues = rank