Flow of matters

Plants -----> cows -----> lion

Energy loss 1. Number / biomass of organisms at lower trophic level > higher trophic levels, because energy is lost ( by respiration and excretion ) at each trophic level.

Plants Cows Lions The number and biomass of organisms at the lower trophic level is more than that at higher trophic levels Energy loss occurs at each trophic level due to respiration, so less and less amount of energy is available to organisms at higher trophic levels 處於食物鍊基層的生物的數目或生物質量一般較處於食物鍊高層生物的為多 因為在每一食物層次中, 能量會因生物進行呼吸作用而散失, 只有小部分可以傳 給並養活處於食物鍊高層的生物

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Grass ----> grasshopper ----> frogs ----> snakes Pyramid of number

Trees ----> caterpillar ----> small birds ----> hawk Pyramid of number ( ! )

Trees ----> small birds ----> parasites of birds Pyramid of number ( ! )

Trees ----> small birds ----> parasites of birds Pyramid of biomass

Water Atmosphere Living organisms Fossil fuel (underground) Carbon Cycle ( CO 2, C in organic compounds )

Water Atmosphere Fossil fuel (underground) Carbon Cycle ( CO 2, C in organic compounds ) producersconsumers

Water Atmosphere Fossil fuel (underground) Carbon Cycle ( CO 2, C in organic compounds ) producersconsumers Photosynthesis Decomposition -decomposers respiration Decomposition prevented combustion

Carbon cycle

Atmosphere Organisms Soil Nitrogen Cycle ( N 2, NO 3 +, N in Proteins )

Atmosphere Producers Soil Nitrogen Cycle ( N 2, NO 3 +, N in Proteins ) Consumers

Atmosphere Producers Soil Nitrogen Cycle ( N 2, NO 3 +, N in Proteins ) Consumers Death / excretory products NH 4 + Nitrification nitrifying bacteria NO 3 - absorbed Nitrogen fixation Nitrogen fixing bacteria in legumes Denitrification Denitrifying bacteria Lightning / fertilizers Decomposition decomposers

Root Root nodule

Nitrogen cycle

Denitrification Denitrifying bacteria Nitrogen fixation Nitrogen fixing bacteria in legumes Nitrification Nitrifying bacteria

Predation ( prey and predator ) Competition - competitors

個體數目 時間 ( 年 )

Commensalism

Mutualism

Crustose lichen in cross section Fungal part Algal part ?

Lichen grows on rock

(i) (1) CO 2 from respiration of plants and decomposers, O 2 from photosynthesis of green plants (2) by recycling, transpiration of plant --> condensation -->soil ----> absorbed by plants (3) decomposition of dead bodies of plants by decomposers (ii) animals / consumers (iii) for - adding nutrients to soil after decomposition of organic matters - holding water in soil

(ii) A, it involves more trophic levels, more energy will be lost in A as energy is lost at each trophic level (ii) bee, help in pollination (iii) (1) lizard and snake (2) body is covered with dry horny scales

algae small fish large fish Toxin : 0.05 ppm 5 ppm 200 ppm Large fish -> higher concentration of toxin, why ? 1. Eat much toxin-containing food 2. Accumulate toxin for a long period of time If toxins / compounds are resistant ( cannot be excreted or metabolized by organism tend to accumulate along the food chain Therefore, top consumer suffer most

Water pollution - Organic wastes Organic wastes Inorganic compounds decomposition decomposers. oxygen. Turbidity. Foul smell Algal bloom e.g. red tide fertilizers

(i) (iv) (ii) (iii) (v)

Cutting down trees = Deforestation

Landslide

Flooding

Monoculture

legumes Crop 1 - deep-rooted plant Crop 2 - shallow-rooted plant Crop rotation

(i) (iv)