1 Toward a Theory of Theory: Toward a Theory of Theory: The Creation & Validation of the Scholar-Practitioner’s Closest Friend Fielding Graduate University HOD Winter Session, January 2007 Steven E. Wallis, Ph.D.

2 Importance of Theory “practice is never theory-free “there are no facts independent of our theories” Theory is a way to “understand the systemic reasons for a particular occurrence of nonoccurrence.” “a new way to see the world” “a context, a map, and a flashlight that help us find our way home in the dark.”

3 Failure of Theory Social change theory not very effective “Spotty” success of economics Business schools teach information that is largely irrelevant to life outside Practitioners see little use in theory Effectiveness of complexity theory used in organizations is inconsistent at best.

4 Leads to Failure of Practice OD - “culture-change” interventions “fail to reach their goals” about 80% of the time Psych. fails to cure Borderline Personality Disorder 70% of the time TQM - efforts “fail” at least 70% of the time A Serious Issue!

5 Does Theory Help? GONDWONALAND JIGSAW PUZZLE? – to usa map jigsaw puzzle – to elephant FILM CLIP OF DUMBOS Sure – if its true (in some sense) that we’re all trying to make sense of the world…

6 What Theory IS Abstraction of reality Way to change understanding Mental Model Schema Tool to enable change An ordered set of assertions about a generic behavior of structure assumed to hold throughout a significantly broad range of specific instances

7 What Theory is NOT Data Variables Diagram Hypothesis describing, categorizing Limited metaphor (e.g. our firm is like a tree) In Short…not something “ small ”

8 Five “challenges” to the construction of theory: 1. A theoretical model may address anything. 2. Theory is not merely describing, categorizing, or stating a hypothesis. 3. The concept of “Adequacy” relates to an argument about how the theory is constructed. 4. The concept of “Reality” is about the “real world” testing of the theory. 5. A theoretical model is only scientific if it is put it to an empirical test.

9 But the line between theory and non-theory is fuzzy… A small idea can turn into a theory very easily by adding another idea, a hypothesis, or proposition… (e.g. The act of trimming one “branch” of the organization will cause another branch to grow)

10 How is Theory Built?

11 PrioriPosteriori 1. existing in the mind prior to and independent of observation 2. not based on prior study of examination; non- analytic. (INSIGHT) 1. based upon actual observation or upon experimental data. 2. not existing in the mind prior to or independent of experience.” (EMPIRICAL)

12 Both May be Based on Hidden Assumptions What assumptions discriminate between what is “empirical” data, and what is not? What assumptions might underlie a “flash” of insight?

13 Priori-Posterior Dichotomy?

14 Nonaka’s Social Construction Individual has phenomenological perceptions (tacit) Group rationally combines, systemizes & integrates knowledge (becomes explicit) Tacit perceptions are shared with group (knowledge becomes explicit) Pragmatic individual internalizes group knowledge (becomes tacit) (changes perceptions)

15 Suggests that Steps are Differentiable, yet Inseparable Within each priori is some posteriori Within each posteriori is some priori Suggests “Dichotomy” is False

16 And Opens the Door for More Bricolage (mix of ideas, people, etc.) Tacit (known only to self) Vernacular theory (non-academic) Reflective (between person & data) Reflexive (highlight the relationship - e.g. RDA) Grounded theory (explicit relationships between situation, data, concepts)

17 Tacit forms of Theory Creation Socially constructed Intuitive / Schemas / Mental models May be priori, posteriori, or combination May be short-lived Not shared with group / Opaque May not be known to the individual? Burrell’s “retro-organizational” theory

18 Leads me to Wonder… Tacit theory creation pushes the limits of our understanding – suggesting (perhaps) a form of “proto theory” or “virtual theory” In what ways might a set of “hidden assumptions” be seen as similar or different than “theory?”

19 Reflexive Forms of Theory Creation (e.g. reflective, grounded theory, RDA) Involves purposeful (low-intuitive) theory creation Process is made transparent for others May suggest “mechanical” process May suggest higher level of competence (on the part of the field, overall)

20 Suggested Topology MORE Social Cons- truction LESS More Transparent More Opaque REFLEXIVE (e.g. GT, RDA) TACIT (e.g. Nonaka’s cycle) INTUITIVE / PRIORI EMPRICAL / POSTERIORI

21 Some Points to Ponder What form of theory-creation might be preferred in a given situation? What form(s) is the theorist capable of? How might the form of theory-creation affect the final structure (and, possibly, the applicability) of the theory?

22 Validation of Theory Intuitively Intrinsically Extrinsically

23 Intuitive Validation Does it seem to make sense?

24 Extrinsic Validation Does the theory “work” in practice? For WHOM does the theory work? HOW well does the theory work? (compared with other theories)

25 Forms of Intrinsic Validation Aristotelian “Logos” (internal consistency & logic) Wilson’s “consilience” (integrated) Wallis’ “robust” (co-causal)

26 … OR… Is the Intrinsic-Extrinsic split just another False Dichotomy?

27 The Scholar-Practitioner in ACTION!

28 Knowledge Flow model TheoryInformsPractice Linear relationship – suggests dichotomy of theory and practice (the “theory-practice gap”)

29 Nonaka’s Social Construction Individual has phenomenological perceptions (tacit) Group rationally combines, systemizes & integrates knowledge (becomes explicit) Tacit perceptions are shared with group (knowledge becomes explicit) Pragmatic individual internalizes group knowledge (becomes tacit) (changes perceptions)

30 Or… In Another Form THEORYPRACTICE Thus: Placing the Scholar-Practitioner at the “Nexus”

31 Some Scholar-Practitioner Possibilities… How might scholars and practitioners seek each other for more collaborative work? Might we facilitate organizations to surface their own theory (similar to surfacing and defining shared values).

32 Solutions to Failure of Theory 1. Confront “real world” issues 2. With a diverse learning community 3. Using multiple models (and explore the opportunity to reframe the question) 4. Contribute the results to academic journals Van de Ven, in AOM Review, October 2006

33 Creation-Validation as Theory-Evolution Accidental evolution (look back at sweep of history) Hybridization (purposeful cross-disciplinary work with accidental cross-fertilization) Purposeful “splicing” of propositions

34 “Splicing” Concepts Between Multiple Theories Data Causal Links Known & Unknown Theory A Theory C Data Causal Links Known & Unknown Data Causal Links Known & Unknown Theory B

35 Open Conversation Speak your mind Speak your heart Ask questions Be brief and meaningful Presenter will participate and facilitate

36 Some Questions Questions & Comments about presentation What insights are “flashing” for you? What are the implications for application? What are implications for scholarly work? What is the “state of theory?” What is your favorite theory? What ideas might be removed/added to improve this conversation? Is “theory of theory” a “theory?”

37 Thank You

38 Call for Action! Explore links for scholars & practitioners